\input texinfo @c -*-texinfo-*- @comment The source is gforth.ds, from which gforth.texi is generated @comment %**start of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.) @setfilename gforth.info @settitle Gforth Manual @dircategory GNU programming tools @direntry * Gforth: (gforth). A fast interpreter for the Forth language. @end direntry @comment @setchapternewpage odd @macro progstyle {} Programming style note: @end macro @comment %**end of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.) @include version.texi @ifinfo This file documents Gforth @value{VERSION} Copyright @copyright{} 1995-1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. @ignore Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the results, provided the printed document carries a copying permission notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph (this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual). @end ignore Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the sections entitled "Distribution" and "General Public License" are included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the sections entitled "Distribution" and "General Public License" may be included in a translation approved by the author instead of in the original English. @end ifinfo @finalout @titlepage @sp 10 @center @titlefont{Gforth Manual} @sp 2 @center for version @value{VERSION} @sp 2 @center Anton Ertl @center Bernd Paysan @center Jens Wilke @sp 3 @center This manual is permanently under construction @comment The following two commands start the copyright page. @page @vskip 0pt plus 1filll Copyright @copyright{} 1995--1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. @comment !! Published by ... or You can get a copy of this manual ... Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the sections entitled "Distribution" and "General Public License" are included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the sections entitled "Distribution" and "General Public License" may be included in a translation approved by the author instead of in the original English. @end titlepage @node Top, License, (dir), (dir) @ifinfo Gforth is a free implementation of ANS Forth available on many personal machines. This manual corresponds to version @value{VERSION}. @end ifinfo @menu * License:: * Goals:: About the Gforth Project * Other Books:: Things you might want to read * Invoking Gforth:: Starting Gforth * Words:: Forth words available in Gforth * Tools:: Programming tools * ANS conformance:: Implementation-defined options etc. * Model:: The abstract machine of Gforth * Integrating Gforth:: Forth as scripting language for applications * Emacs and Gforth:: The Gforth Mode * Image Files:: @code{.fi} files contain compiled code * Engine:: The inner interpreter and the primitives * Cross Compiler:: The Cross Compiler * Bugs:: How to report them * Origin:: Authors and ancestors of Gforth * Word Index:: An item for each Forth word * Concept Index:: A menu covering many topics --- The Detailed Node Listing --- Forth Words * Notation:: * Arithmetic:: * Stack Manipulation:: * Memory:: * Control Structures:: * Locals:: * Defining Words:: * Structures:: * Object-oriented Forth:: * Tokens for Words:: * Wordlists:: * Files:: * Including Files:: * Blocks:: * Other I/O:: * Programming Tools:: * Assembler and Code Words:: * Threading Words:: Arithmetic * Single precision:: * Bitwise operations:: * Mixed precision:: operations with single and double-cell integers * Double precision:: Double-cell integer arithmetic * Floating Point:: Stack Manipulation * Data stack:: * Floating point stack:: * Return stack:: * Locals stack:: * Stack pointer manipulation:: Memory * Memory Access:: * Address arithmetic:: * Memory Blocks:: Control Structures * Selection:: * Simple Loops:: * Counted Loops:: * Arbitrary control structures:: * Calls and returns:: * Exception Handling:: Locals * Gforth locals:: * ANS Forth locals:: Gforth locals * Where are locals visible by name?:: * How long do locals live?:: * Programming Style:: * Implementation:: Defining Words * Simple Defining Words:: * Colon Definitions:: * User-defined Defining Words:: * Supplying names:: * Interpretation and Compilation Semantics:: Structures * Why explicit structure support?:: * Structure Usage:: * Structure Naming Convention:: * Structure Implementation:: * Structure Glossary:: Object-oriented Forth * Objects:: * OOF:: * Mini-OOF:: Objects * Properties of the Objects model:: * Why object-oriented programming?:: * Object-Oriented Terminology:: * Basic Objects Usage:: * The class Object:: * Creating objects:: * Object-Oriented Programming Style:: * Class Binding:: * Method conveniences:: * Classes and Scoping:: * Object Interfaces:: * Objects Implementation:: * Comparison with other object models:: * Objects Glossary:: OOF * Properties of the OOF model:: * Basic OOF Usage:: * The base class object:: * Class Declaration:: * Class Implementation:: Including Files * Words for Including:: * Search Path:: * Changing the Search Path:: * General Search Paths:: Programming Tools * Debugging:: Simple and quick. * Assertions:: Making your programs self-checking. * Singlestep Debugger:: Executing your program word by word. Tools * ANS Report:: Report the words used, sorted by wordset. ANS conformance * The Core Words:: * The optional Block word set:: * The optional Double Number word set:: * The optional Exception word set:: * The optional Facility word set:: * The optional File-Access word set:: * The optional Floating-Point word set:: * The optional Locals word set:: * The optional Memory-Allocation word set:: * The optional Programming-Tools word set:: * The optional Search-Order word set:: The Core Words * core-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * core-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions * core-other:: Other System Documentation The optional Block word set * block-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * block-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions * block-other:: Other System Documentation The optional Double Number word set * double-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions The optional Exception word set * exception-idef:: Implementation Defined Options The optional Facility word set * facility-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * facility-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions The optional File-Access word set * file-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * file-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions The optional Floating-Point word set * floating-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * floating-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions The optional Locals word set * locals-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * locals-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions The optional Memory-Allocation word set * memory-idef:: Implementation Defined Options The optional Programming-Tools word set * programming-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * programming-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions The optional Search-Order word set * search-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * search-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions Image Files * Image File Background:: Why have image files? * Non-Relocatable Image Files:: don't always work. * Data-Relocatable Image Files:: are better. * Fully Relocatable Image Files:: better yet. * Stack and Dictionary Sizes:: Setting the default sizes for an image. * Running Image Files:: @code{gforth -i @var{file}} or @var{file}. * Modifying the Startup Sequence:: and turnkey applications. Fully Relocatable Image Files * gforthmi:: The normal way * cross.fs:: The hard way Engine * Portability:: * Threading:: * Primitives:: * Performance:: Threading * Scheduling:: * Direct or Indirect Threaded?:: * DOES>:: Primitives * Automatic Generation:: * TOS Optimization:: * Produced code:: System Libraries * Binding to System Library:: Cross Compiler * Using the Cross Compiler:: * How the Cross Compiler Works:: @end menu @node License, Goals, Top, Top @unnumbered GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE @center Version 2, June 1991 @display Copyright @copyright{} 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. @end display @unnumberedsec Preamble The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free software---to make sure the software is free for all its users. This General Public License applies to most of the Free Software Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by the GNU Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it to your programs, too. When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs; and that you know you can do these things. To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it. For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And you must show them these terms so they know their rights. We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify the software. Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free software. If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original authors' reputations. Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents. We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free program will individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the program proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it clear that any patent must be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all. The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modification follow. @iftex @unnumberedsec TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION @end iftex @ifinfo @center TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION @end ifinfo @enumerate 0 @item This License applies to any program or other work which contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under the terms of this General Public License. The ``Program'', below, refers to any such program or work, and a ``work based on the Program'' means either the Program or any derivative work under copyright law: that is to say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or with modifications and/or translated into another language. (Hereinafter, translation is included without limitation in the term ``modification''.) Each licensee is addressed as ``you''. Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not covered by this License; they are outside its scope. The act of running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the Program (independent of having been made by running the Program). Whether that is true depends on what the Program does. @item You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other recipients of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program. You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee. @item You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1 above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions: @enumerate a @item You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating that you changed the files and the date of any change. @item You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties under the terms of this License. @item If the modified program normally reads commands interactively when run, you must cause it, when started running for such interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this License. (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on the Program is not required to print an announcement.) @end enumerate These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole. If identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program, and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those sections when you distribute them as separate works. But when you distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it. Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or collective works based on the Program. In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under the scope of this License. @item You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following: @enumerate a @item Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or, @item Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or, @item Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer to distribute corresponding source code. (This alternative is allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you received the program in object code or executable form with such an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.) @end enumerate The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for making modifications to it. For an executable work, complete source code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to control compilation and installation of the executable. However, as a special exception, the source code distributed need not include anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component itself accompanies the executable. If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent access to copy the source code from the same place counts as distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not compelled to copy the source along with the object code. @item You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance. @item You are not required to accept this License, since you have not signed it. However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or distribute the Program or its derivative works. These actions are prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying the Program or works based on it. @item Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to these terms and conditions. You may not impose any further restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein. 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This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to be a consequence of the rest of this License. @item If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the original copyright holder who places the Program under this License may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among countries not thus excluded. In such case, this License incorporates the limitation as if written in the body of this License. @item The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and ``any later version'', you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation. @item If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted by the Free Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally. @iftex @heading NO WARRANTY @end iftex @ifinfo @center NO WARRANTY @end ifinfo @item BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM ``AS IS'' WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. @item IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. @end enumerate @iftex @heading END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS @end iftex @ifinfo @center END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS @end ifinfo @page @unnumberedsec How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms. To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the ``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. @smallexample @var{one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.} Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author} This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA. @end smallexample Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode: @smallexample Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author} Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. @end smallexample The hypothetical commands @samp{show w} and @samp{show c} should show the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the commands you use may be called something other than @samp{show w} and @samp{show c}; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items---whatever suits your program. You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your school, if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names: @smallexample Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program `Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker. @var{signature of Ty Coon}, 1 April 1989 Ty Coon, President of Vice @end smallexample This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library General Public License instead of this License. @iftex @unnumbered Preface @cindex Preface This manual documents Gforth. The reader is expected to know Forth. This manual is primarily a reference manual. @xref{Other Books} for introductory material. @end iftex @node Goals, Other Books, License, Top @comment node-name, next, previous, up @chapter Goals of Gforth @cindex Goals The goal of the Gforth Project is to develop a standard model for ANS Forth. This can be split into several subgoals: @itemize @bullet @item Gforth should conform to the Forth standard (ANS Forth). @item It should be a model, i.e. it should define all the implementation-dependent things. @item It should become standard, i.e. widely accepted and used. This goal is the most difficult one. @end itemize To achieve these goals Gforth should be @itemize @bullet @item Similar to previous models (fig-Forth, F83) @item Powerful. It should provide for all the things that are considered necessary today and even some that are not yet considered necessary. @item Efficient. It should not get the reputation of being exceptionally slow. @item Free. @item Available on many machines/easy to port. @end itemize Have we achieved these goals? Gforth conforms to the ANS Forth standard. It may be considered a model, but we have not yet documented which parts of the model are stable and which parts we are likely to change. It certainly has not yet become a de facto standard, but it appears to be quite popular. It has some similarities to and some differences from previous models. It has some powerful features, but not yet everything that we envisioned. We certainly have achieved our execution speed goals (@pxref{Performance}). It is free and available on many machines. @node Other Books, Invoking Gforth, Goals, Top @chapter Other books on ANS Forth @cindex books on Forth As the standard is relatively new, there are not many books out yet. It is not recommended to learn Forth by using Gforth and a book that is not written for ANS Forth, as you will not know your mistakes from the deviations of the book. However, books based on the Forth-83 standard should be ok, because ANS Forth is primarily an extension of Forth-83. @cindex standard document for ANS Forth @cindex ANS Forth document There is, of course, the standard, the definite reference if you want to write ANS Forth programs. It is available in printed form from the National Standards Institute Sales Department (Tel.: USA (212) 642-4900; Fax.: USA (212) 302-1286) as document @cite{X3.215-1994} for about $200. You can also get it from Global Engineering Documents (Tel.: USA (800) 854-7179; Fax.: (303) 843-9880) for about $300. @cite{dpANS6}, the last draft of the standard, which was then submitted to ANSI for publication is available electronically and for free in some MS Word format, and it has been converted to HTML (@url{http://www.taygeta.com/forth/dpans.html}; this is my favourite format); this HTML version also includes the answers to Requests for Interpretation (RFIs). Some pointers to these versions can be found through @*@url{http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/projects/forth.html}. @cindex introductory book @cindex book, introductory @cindex Woehr, Jack: @cite{Forth: The New Model} @cindex @cite{Forth: The new model} (book) @cite{Forth: The New Model} by Jack Woehr (Prentice-Hall, 1993) is an introductory book based on a draft version of the standard. It does not cover the whole standard. It also contains interesting background information (Jack Woehr was in the ANS Forth Technical Committee). It is not appropriate for complete newbies, but programmers experienced in other languages should find it ok. @cindex Conklin, Edward K., and Elizabeth Rather: @cite{Forth Programmer's Handbook} @cindex Rather, Elizabeth and Edward K. Conklin: @cite{Forth Programmer's Handbook} @cindex @cite{Forth Programmer's Handbook} (book) @cite{Forth Programmer's Handbook} by Edward K. Conklin, Elizabeth D. Rather and the technical staff of Forth, Inc. (Forth, Inc., 1997; ISBN 0-9662156-0-5) contains little introductory material. The majority of the book is similar to @ref{Words}, but the book covers most of the standard words and some non-standard words (whereas this manual is quite incomplete). In addition, the book contains a chapter on programming style. The major drawback of this book is that it usually does not identify what is standard and what is specific to the Forth system described in the book (probably one of Forth, Inc.'s systems). Fortunately, many of the non-standard programming practices described in the book work in Gforth, too. Still, this drawback makes the book hardly more useful than a pre-ANS book. @node Invoking Gforth, Words, Other Books, Top @chapter Invoking Gforth @cindex invoking Gforth @cindex running Gforth @cindex command-line options @cindex options on the command line @cindex flags on the command line You will usually just say @code{gforth}. In many other cases the default Gforth image will be invoked like this: @example gforth [files] [-e forth-code] @end example This interprets the contents of the files and the Forth code in the order they are given. In general, the command line looks like this: @example gforth [initialization options] [image-specific options] @end example The initialization options must come before the rest of the command line. They are: @table @code @cindex -i, command-line option @cindex --image-file, command-line option @item --image-file @var{file} @itemx -i @var{file} Loads the Forth image @var{file} instead of the default @file{gforth.fi} (@pxref{Image Files}). @cindex --path, command-line option @cindex -p, command-line option @item --path @var{path} @itemx -p @var{path} Uses @var{path} for searching the image file and Forth source code files instead of the default in the environment variable @code{GFORTHPATH} or the path specified at installation time (e.g., @file{/usr/local/share/gforth/0.2.0:.}). A path is given as a list of directories, separated by @samp{:} (on Unix) or @samp{;} (on other OSs). @cindex --dictionary-size, command-line option @cindex -m, command-line option @cindex @var{size} parameters for command-line options @cindex size of the dictionary and the stacks @item --dictionary-size @var{size} @itemx -m @var{size} Allocate @var{size} space for the Forth dictionary space instead of using the default specified in the image (typically 256K). The @var{size} specification consists of an integer and a unit (e.g., @code{4M}). The unit can be one of @code{b} (bytes), @code{e} (element size, in this case Cells), @code{k} (kilobytes), @code{M} (Megabytes), @code{G} (Gigabytes), and @code{T} (Terabytes). If no unit is specified, @code{e} is used. @cindex --data-stack-size, command-line option @cindex -d, command-line option @item --data-stack-size @var{size} @itemx -d @var{size} Allocate @var{size} space for the data stack instead of using the default specified in the image (typically 16K). @cindex --return-stack-size, command-line option @cindex -r, command-line option @item --return-stack-size @var{size} @itemx -r @var{size} Allocate @var{size} space for the return stack instead of using the default specified in the image (typically 15K). @cindex --fp-stack-size, command-line option @cindex -f, command-line option @item --fp-stack-size @var{size} @itemx -f @var{size} Allocate @var{size} space for the floating point stack instead of using the default specified in the image (typically 15.5K). In this case the unit specifier @code{e} refers to floating point numbers. @cindex --locals-stack-size, command-line option @cindex -l, command-line option @item --locals-stack-size @var{size} @itemx -l @var{size} Allocate @var{size} space for the locals stack instead of using the default specified in the image (typically 14.5K). @cindex -h, command-line option @cindex --help, command-line option @item --help @itemx -h Print a message about the command-line options @cindex -v, command-line option @cindex --version, command-line option @item --version @itemx -v Print version and exit @cindex --debug, command-line option @item --debug Print some information useful for debugging on startup. @cindex --offset-image, command-line option @item --offset-image Start the dictionary at a slightly different position than would be used otherwise (useful for creating data-relocatable images, @pxref{Data-Relocatable Image Files}). @cindex --no-offset-im, command-line option @item --no-offset-im Start the dictionary at the normal position. @cindex --clear-dictionary, command-line option @item --clear-dictionary Initialize all bytes in the dictionary to 0 before loading the image (@pxref{Data-Relocatable Image Files}). @cindex --die-on-signal, command-line-option @item --die-on-signal Normally Gforth handles most signals (e.g., the user interrupt SIGINT, or the segmentation violation SIGSEGV) by translating it into a Forth @code{THROW}. With this option, Gforth exits if it receives such a signal. This option is useful when the engine and/or the image might be severely broken (such that it causes another signal before recovering from the first); this option avoids endless loops in such cases. @end table @cindex loading files at startup @cindex executing code on startup @cindex batch processing with Gforth As explained above, the image-specific command-line arguments for the default image @file{gforth.fi} consist of a sequence of filenames and @code{-e @var{forth-code}} options that are interpreted in the sequence in which they are given. The @code{-e @var{forth-code}} or @code{--evaluate @var{forth-code}} option evaluates the forth code. This option takes only one argument; if you want to evaluate more Forth words, you have to quote them or use several @code{-e}s. To exit after processing the command line (instead of entering interactive mode) append @code{-e bye} to the command line. @cindex versions, invoking other versions of Gforth If you have several versions of Gforth installed, @code{gforth} will invoke the version that was installed last. @code{gforth-@var{version}} invokes a specific version. You may want to use the option @code{--path}, if your environment contains the variable @code{GFORTHPATH}. Not yet implemented: On startup the system first executes the system initialization file (unless the option @code{--no-init-file} is given; note that the system resulting from using this option may not be ANS Forth conformant). Then the user initialization file @file{.gforth.fs} is executed, unless the option @code{--no-rc} is given; this file is first searched in @file{.}, then in @file{~}, then in the normal path (see above). @node Words, Tools, Invoking Gforth, Top @chapter Forth Words @cindex Words @menu * Notation:: * Arithmetic:: * Stack Manipulation:: * Memory:: * Control Structures:: * Locals:: * Defining Words:: * Structures:: * Object-oriented Forth:: * Tokens for Words:: * Wordlists:: * Files:: * Including Files:: * Blocks:: * Other I/O:: * Programming Tools:: * Assembler and Code Words:: * Threading Words:: @end menu @node Notation, Arithmetic, Words, Words @section Notation @cindex notation of glossary entries @cindex format of glossary entries @cindex glossary notation format @cindex word glossary entry format The Forth words are described in this section in the glossary notation that has become a de-facto standard for Forth texts, i.e., @format @var{word} @var{Stack effect} @var{wordset} @var{pronunciation} @end format @var{Description} @table @var @item word @cindex case insensitivity The name of the word. BTW, Gforth is case insensitive, so you can type the words in in lower case (However, @pxref{core-idef}). @item Stack effect @cindex stack effect The stack effect is written in the notation @code{@var{before} -- @var{after}}, where @var{before} and @var{after} describe the top of stack entries before and after the execution of the word. The rest of the stack is not touched by the word. The top of stack is rightmost, i.e., a stack sequence is written as it is typed in. Note that Gforth uses a separate floating point stack, but a unified stack notation. Also, return stack effects are not shown in @var{stack effect}, but in @var{Description}. The name of a stack item describes the type and/or the function of the item. See below for a discussion of the types. All words have two stack effects: A compile-time stack effect and a run-time stack effect. The compile-time stack-effect of most words is @var{ -- }. If the compile-time stack-effect of a word deviates from this standard behaviour, or the word does other unusual things at compile time, both stack effects are shown; otherwise only the run-time stack effect is shown. @cindex pronounciation of words @item pronunciation How the word is pronounced. @cindex wordset @item wordset The ANS Forth standard is divided into several wordsets. A standard system need not support all of them. So, the fewer wordsets your program uses the more portable it will be in theory. However, we suspect that most ANS Forth systems on personal machines will feature all wordsets. Words that are not defined in the ANS standard have @code{gforth} or @code{gforth-internal} as wordset. @code{gforth} describes words that will work in future releases of Gforth; @code{gforth-internal} words are more volatile. Environmental query strings are also displayed like words; you can recognize them by the @code{environment} in the wordset field. @item Description A description of the behaviour of the word. @end table @cindex types of stack items @cindex stack item types The type of a stack item is specified by the character(s) the name starts with: @table @code @item f @cindex @code{f}, stack item type Boolean flags, i.e. @code{false} or @code{true}. @item c @cindex @code{c}, stack item type Char @item w @cindex @code{w}, stack item type Cell, can contain an integer or an address @item n @cindex @code{n}, stack item type signed integer @item u @cindex @code{u}, stack item type unsigned integer @item d @cindex @code{d}, stack item type double sized signed integer @item ud @cindex @code{ud}, stack item type double sized unsigned integer @item r @cindex @code{r}, stack item type Float (on the FP stack) @item a_ @cindex @code{a_}, stack item type Cell-aligned address @item c_ @cindex @code{c_}, stack item type Char-aligned address (note that a Char may have two bytes in Windows NT) @item f_ @cindex @code{f_}, stack item type Float-aligned address @item df_ @cindex @code{df_}, stack item type Address aligned for IEEE double precision float @item sf_ @cindex @code{sf_}, stack item type Address aligned for IEEE single precision float @item xt @cindex @code{xt}, stack item type Execution token, same size as Cell @item wid @cindex @code{wid}, stack item type Wordlist ID, same size as Cell @item f83name @cindex @code{f83name}, stack item type Pointer to a name structure @item " @cindex @code{"}, stack item type string in the input stream (not on the stack). The terminating character is a blank by default. If it is not a blank, it is shown in @code{<>} quotes. @end table @node Arithmetic, Stack Manipulation, Notation, Words @section Arithmetic @cindex arithmetic words @cindex division with potentially negative operands Forth arithmetic is not checked, i.e., you will not hear about integer overflow on addition or multiplication, you may hear about division by zero if you are lucky. The operator is written after the operands, but the operands are still in the original order. I.e., the infix @code{2-1} corresponds to @code{2 1 -}. Forth offers a variety of division operators. If you perform division with potentially negative operands, you do not want to use @code{/} or @code{/mod} with its undefined behaviour, but rather @code{fm/mod} or @code{sm/mod} (probably the former, @pxref{Mixed precision}). @menu * Single precision:: * Bitwise operations:: * Mixed precision:: operations with single and double-cell integers * Double precision:: Double-cell integer arithmetic * Floating Point:: @end menu @node Single precision, Bitwise operations, Arithmetic, Arithmetic @subsection Single precision @cindex single precision arithmetic words doc-+ doc-- doc-* doc-/ doc-mod doc-/mod doc-negate doc-abs doc-min doc-max @node Bitwise operations, Mixed precision, Single precision, Arithmetic @subsection Bitwise operations @cindex bitwise operation words doc-and doc-or doc-xor doc-invert doc-2* doc-2/ @node Mixed precision, Double precision, Bitwise operations, Arithmetic @subsection Mixed precision @cindex mixed precision arithmetic words doc-m+ doc-*/ doc-*/mod doc-m* doc-um* doc-m*/ doc-um/mod doc-fm/mod doc-sm/rem @node Double precision, Floating Point, Mixed precision, Arithmetic @subsection Double precision @cindex double precision arithmetic words @cindex double-cell numbers, input format @cindex input format for double-cell numbers The outer (aka text) interpreter converts numbers containing a dot into a double precision number. Note that only numbers with the dot as last character are standard-conforming. doc-d+ doc-d- doc-dnegate doc-dabs doc-dmin doc-dmax @node Floating Point, , Double precision, Arithmetic @subsection Floating Point @cindex floating point arithmetic words @cindex floating-point numbers, input format @cindex input format for floating-point numbers The format of floating point numbers recognized by the outer (aka text) interpreter is: a signed decimal number, possibly containing a decimal point (@code{.}), followed by @code{E} or @code{e}, optionally followed by a signed integer (the exponent). E.g., @code{1e} is the same as @code{+1.0e+0}. Note that a number without @code{e} is not interpreted as floating-point number, but as double (if the number contains a @code{.}) or single precision integer. Also, conversions between string and floating point numbers always use base 10, irrespective of the value of @code{BASE} (in Gforth; for the standard this is an ambiguous condition). If @code{BASE} contains a value greater then 14, the @code{E} may be interpreted as digit and the number will be interpreted as integer, unless it has a signed exponent (both @code{+} and @code{-} are allowed as signs). @cindex angles in trigonometric operations @cindex trigonometric operations Angles in floating point operations are given in radians (a full circle has 2 pi radians). Note, that Gforth has a separate floating point stack, but we use the unified notation. @cindex floating-point arithmetic, pitfalls Floating point numbers have a number of unpleasant surprises for the unwary (e.g., floating point addition is not associative) and even a few for the wary. You should not use them unless you know what you are doing or you don't care that the results you get are totally bogus. If you want to learn about the problems of floating point numbers (and how to avoid them), you might start with @cite{David Goldberg, What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic, ACM Computing Surveys 23(1):5@minus{}48, March 1991}. doc-f+ doc-f- doc-f* doc-f/ doc-fnegate doc-fabs doc-fmax doc-fmin doc-floor doc-fround doc-f** doc-fsqrt doc-fexp doc-fexpm1 doc-fln doc-flnp1 doc-flog doc-falog doc-fsin doc-fcos doc-fsincos doc-ftan doc-fasin doc-facos doc-fatan doc-fatan2 doc-fsinh doc-fcosh doc-ftanh doc-fasinh doc-facosh doc-fatanh @node Stack Manipulation, Memory, Arithmetic, Words @section Stack Manipulation @cindex stack manipulation words @cindex floating-point stack in the standard Gforth has a data stack (aka parameter stack) for characters, cells, addresses, and double cells, a floating point stack for floating point numbers, a return stack for storing the return addresses of colon definitions and other data, and a locals stack for storing local variables. Note that while every sane Forth has a separate floating point stack, this is not strictly required; an ANS Forth system could theoretically keep floating point numbers on the data stack. As an additional difficulty, you don't know how many cells a floating point number takes. It is reportedly possible to write words in a way that they work also for a unified stack model, but we do not recommend trying it. Instead, just say that your program has an environmental dependency on a separate FP stack. @cindex return stack and locals @cindex locals and return stack Also, a Forth system is allowed to keep the local variables on the return stack. This is reasonable, as local variables usually eliminate the need to use the return stack explicitly. So, if you want to produce a standard complying program and if you are using local variables in a word, forget about return stack manipulations in that word (see the standard document for the exact rules). @menu * Data stack:: * Floating point stack:: * Return stack:: * Locals stack:: * Stack pointer manipulation:: @end menu @node Data stack, Floating point stack, Stack Manipulation, Stack Manipulation @subsection Data stack @cindex data stack manipulation words @cindex stack manipulations words, data stack doc-drop doc-nip doc-dup doc-over doc-tuck doc-swap doc-rot doc--rot doc-?dup doc-pick doc-roll doc-2drop doc-2nip doc-2dup doc-2over doc-2tuck doc-2swap doc-2rot @node Floating point stack, Return stack, Data stack, Stack Manipulation @subsection Floating point stack @cindex floating-point stack manipulation words @cindex stack manipulation words, floating-point stack doc-fdrop doc-fnip doc-fdup doc-fover doc-ftuck doc-fswap doc-frot @node Return stack, Locals stack, Floating point stack, Stack Manipulation @subsection Return stack @cindex return stack manipulation words @cindex stack manipulation words, return stack doc->r doc-r> doc-r@ doc-rdrop doc-2>r doc-2r> doc-2r@ doc-2rdrop @node Locals stack, Stack pointer manipulation, Return stack, Stack Manipulation @subsection Locals stack @node Stack pointer manipulation, , Locals stack, Stack Manipulation @subsection Stack pointer manipulation @cindex stack pointer manipulation words doc-sp@ doc-sp! doc-fp@ doc-fp! doc-rp@ doc-rp! doc-lp@ doc-lp! @node Memory, Control Structures, Stack Manipulation, Words @section Memory @cindex Memory words @menu * Memory Access:: * Address arithmetic:: * Memory Blocks:: @end menu @node Memory Access, Address arithmetic, Memory, Memory @subsection Memory Access @cindex memory access words doc-@ doc-! doc-+! doc-c@ doc-c! doc-2@ doc-2! doc-f@ doc-f! doc-sf@ doc-sf! doc-df@ doc-df! @node Address arithmetic, Memory Blocks, Memory Access, Memory @subsection Address arithmetic @cindex address arithmetic words ANS Forth does not specify the sizes of the data types. Instead, it offers a number of words for computing sizes and doing address arithmetic. Basically, address arithmetic is performed in terms of address units (aus); on most systems the address unit is one byte. Note that a character may have more than one au, so @code{chars} is no noop (on systems where it is a noop, it compiles to nothing). @cindex alignment of addresses for types ANS Forth also defines words for aligning addresses for specific types. Many computers require that accesses to specific data types must only occur at specific addresses; e.g., that cells may only be accessed at addresses divisible by 4. Even if a machine allows unaligned accesses, it can usually perform aligned accesses faster. For the performance-conscious: alignment operations are usually only necessary during the definition of a data structure, not during the (more frequent) accesses to it. ANS Forth defines no words for character-aligning addresses. This is not an oversight, but reflects the fact that addresses that are not char-aligned have no use in the standard and therefore will not be created. @cindex @code{CREATE} and alignment The standard guarantees that addresses returned by @code{CREATE}d words are cell-aligned; in addition, Gforth guarantees that these addresses are aligned for all purposes. Note that the standard defines a word @code{char}, which has nothing to do with address arithmetic. doc-chars doc-char+ doc-cells doc-cell+ doc-cell doc-align doc-aligned doc-floats doc-float+ doc-float doc-falign doc-faligned doc-sfloats doc-sfloat+ doc-sfalign doc-sfaligned doc-dfloats doc-dfloat+ doc-dfalign doc-dfaligned doc-maxalign doc-maxaligned doc-cfalign doc-cfaligned doc-address-unit-bits @node Memory Blocks, , Address arithmetic, Memory @subsection Memory Blocks @cindex memory block words doc-move doc-erase While the previous words work on address units, the rest works on characters. doc-cmove doc-cmove> doc-fill doc-blank @node Control Structures, Locals, Memory, Words @section Control Structures @cindex control structures Control structures in Forth cannot be used in interpret state, only in compile state@footnote{More precisely, they have no interpretation semantics (@pxref{Interpretation and Compilation Semantics})}, i.e., in a colon definition. We do not like this limitation, but have not seen a satisfying way around it yet, although many schemes have been proposed. @menu * Selection:: * Simple Loops:: * Counted Loops:: * Arbitrary control structures:: * Calls and returns:: * Exception Handling:: @end menu @node Selection, Simple Loops, Control Structures, Control Structures @subsection Selection @cindex selection control structures @cindex control structures for selection @cindex @code{IF} control structure @example @var{flag} IF @var{code} ENDIF @end example or @example @var{flag} IF @var{code1} ELSE @var{code2} ENDIF @end example You can use @code{THEN} instead of @code{ENDIF}. Indeed, @code{THEN} is standard, and @code{ENDIF} is not, although it is quite popular. We recommend using @code{ENDIF}, because it is less confusing for people who also know other languages (and is not prone to reinforcing negative prejudices against Forth in these people). Adding @code{ENDIF} to a system that only supplies @code{THEN} is simple: @example : endif POSTPONE then ; immediate @end example [According to @cite{Webster's New Encyclopedic Dictionary}, @dfn{then (adv.)} has the following meanings: @quotation ... 2b: following next after in order ... 3d: as a necessary consequence (if you were there, then you saw them). @end quotation Forth's @code{THEN} has the meaning 2b, whereas @code{THEN} in Pascal and many other programming languages has the meaning 3d.] Gforth also provides the words @code{?dup-if} and @code{?dup-0=-if}, so you can avoid using @code{?dup}. Using these alternatives is also more efficient than using @code{?dup}. Definitions in plain standard Forth for @code{ENDIF}, @code{?DUP-IF} and @code{?DUP-0=-IF} are provided in @file{compat/control.fs}. @cindex @code{CASE} control structure @example @var{n} CASE @var{n1} OF @var{code1} ENDOF @var{n2} OF @var{code2} ENDOF @dots{} ENDCASE @end example Executes the first @var{codei}, where the @var{ni} is equal to @var{n}. A default case can be added by simply writing the code after the last @code{ENDOF}. It may use @var{n}, which is on top of the stack, but must not consume it. @node Simple Loops, Counted Loops, Selection, Control Structures @subsection Simple Loops @cindex simple loops @cindex loops without count @cindex @code{WHILE} loop @example BEGIN @var{code1} @var{flag} WHILE @var{code2} REPEAT @end example @var{code1} is executed and @var{flag} is computed. If it is true, @var{code2} is executed and the loop is restarted; If @var{flag} is false, execution continues after the @code{REPEAT}. @cindex @code{UNTIL} loop @example BEGIN @var{code} @var{flag} UNTIL @end example @var{code} is executed. The loop is restarted if @code{flag} is false. @cindex endless loop @cindex loops, endless @example BEGIN @var{code} AGAIN @end example This is an endless loop. @node Counted Loops, Arbitrary control structures, Simple Loops, Control Structures @subsection Counted Loops @cindex counted loops @cindex loops, counted @cindex @code{DO} loops The basic counted loop is: @example @var{limit} @var{start} ?DO @var{body} LOOP @end example This performs one iteration for every integer, starting from @var{start} and up to, but excluding @var{limit}. The counter, aka index, can be accessed with @code{i}. E.g., the loop @example 10 0 ?DO i . LOOP @end example prints @example 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 @end example The index of the innermost loop can be accessed with @code{i}, the index of the next loop with @code{j}, and the index of the third loop with @code{k}. doc-i doc-j doc-k The loop control data are kept on the return stack, so there are some restrictions on mixing return stack accesses and counted loop words. E.g., if you put values on the return stack outside the loop, you cannot read them inside the loop. If you put values on the return stack within a loop, you have to remove them before the end of the loop and before accessing the index of the loop. There are several variations on the counted loop: @code{LEAVE} leaves the innermost counted loop immediately. If @var{start} is greater than @var{limit}, a @code{?DO} loop is entered (and @code{LOOP} iterates until they become equal by wrap-around arithmetic). This behaviour is usually not what you want. Therefore, Gforth offers @code{+DO} and @code{U+DO} (as replacements for @code{?DO}), which do not enter the loop if @var{start} is greater than @var{limit}; @code{+DO} is for signed loop parameters, @code{U+DO} for unsigned loop parameters. @code{LOOP} can be replaced with @code{@var{n} +LOOP}; this updates the index by @var{n} instead of by 1. The loop is terminated when the border between @var{limit-1} and @var{limit} is crossed. E.g.: @code{4 0 +DO i . 2 +LOOP} prints @code{0 2} @code{4 1 +DO i . 2 +LOOP} prints @code{1 3} @cindex negative increment for counted loops @cindex counted loops with negative increment The behaviour of @code{@var{n} +LOOP} is peculiar when @var{n} is negative: @code{-1 0 ?DO i . -1 +LOOP} prints @code{0 -1} @code{ 0 0 ?DO i . -1 +LOOP} prints nothing Therefore we recommend avoiding @code{@var{n} +LOOP} with negative @var{n}. One alternative is @code{@var{u} -LOOP}, which reduces the index by @var{u} each iteration. The loop is terminated when the border between @var{limit+1} and @var{limit} is crossed. Gforth also provides @code{-DO} and @code{U-DO} for down-counting loops. E.g.: @code{-2 0 -DO i . 1 -LOOP} prints @code{0 -1} @code{-1 0 -DO i . 1 -LOOP} prints @code{0} @code{ 0 0 -DO i . 1 -LOOP} prints nothing Unfortunately, @code{+DO}, @code{U+DO}, @code{-DO}, @code{U-DO} and @code{-LOOP} are not in the ANS Forth standard. However, an implementation for these words that uses only standard words is provided in @file{compat/loops.fs}. @code{?DO} can also be replaced by @code{DO}. @code{DO} always enters the loop, independent of the loop parameters. Do not use @code{DO}, even if you know that the loop is entered in any case. Such knowledge tends to become invalid during maintenance of a program, and then the @code{DO} will make trouble. @code{UNLOOP} is used to prepare for an abnormal loop exit, e.g., via @code{EXIT}. @code{UNLOOP} removes the loop control parameters from the return stack so @code{EXIT} can get to its return address. @cindex @code{FOR} loops Another counted loop is @example @var{n} FOR @var{body} NEXT @end example This is the preferred loop of native code compiler writers who are too lazy to optimize @code{?DO} loops properly. In Gforth, this loop iterates @var{n+1} times; @code{i} produces values starting with @var{n} and ending with 0. Other Forth systems may behave differently, even if they support @code{FOR} loops. To avoid problems, don't use @code{FOR} loops. @node Arbitrary control structures, Calls and returns, Counted Loops, Control Structures @subsection Arbitrary control structures @cindex control structures, user-defined @cindex control-flow stack ANS Forth permits and supports using control structures in a non-nested way. Information about incomplete control structures is stored on the control-flow stack. This stack may be implemented on the Forth data stack, and this is what we have done in Gforth. @cindex @code{orig}, control-flow stack item @cindex @code{dest}, control-flow stack item An @i{orig} entry represents an unresolved forward branch, a @i{dest} entry represents a backward branch target. A few words are the basis for building any control structure possible (except control structures that need storage, like calls, coroutines, and backtracking). doc-if doc-ahead doc-then doc-begin doc-until doc-again doc-cs-pick doc-cs-roll On many systems control-flow stack items take one word, in Gforth they currently take three (this may change in the future). Therefore it is a really good idea to manipulate the control flow stack with @code{cs-pick} and @code{cs-roll}, not with data stack manipulation words. Some standard control structure words are built from these words: doc-else doc-while doc-repeat Gforth adds some more control-structure words: doc-endif doc-?dup-if doc-?dup-0=-if Counted loop words constitute a separate group of words: doc-?do doc-+do doc-u+do doc--do doc-u-do doc-do doc-for doc-loop doc-+loop doc--loop doc-next doc-leave doc-?leave doc-unloop doc-done The standard does not allow using @code{cs-pick} and @code{cs-roll} on @i{do-sys}. Our system allows it, but it's your job to ensure that for every @code{?DO} etc. there is exactly one @code{UNLOOP} on any path through the definition (@code{LOOP} etc. compile an @code{UNLOOP} on the fall-through path). Also, you have to ensure that all @code{LEAVE}s are resolved (by using one of the loop-ending words or @code{DONE}). Another group of control structure words are doc-case doc-endcase doc-of doc-endof @i{case-sys} and @i{of-sys} cannot be processed using @code{cs-pick} and @code{cs-roll}. @subsubsection Programming Style In order to ensure readability we recommend that you do not create arbitrary control structures directly, but define new control structure words for the control structure you want and use these words in your program. E.g., instead of writing @example begin ... if [ 1 cs-roll ] ... again then @end example we recommend defining control structure words, e.g., @example : while ( dest -- orig dest ) POSTPONE if 1 cs-roll ; immediate : repeat ( orig dest -- ) POSTPONE again POSTPONE then ; immediate @end example and then using these to create the control structure: @example begin ... while ... repeat @end example That's much easier to read, isn't it? Of course, @code{REPEAT} and @code{WHILE} are predefined, so in this example it would not be necessary to define them. @node Calls and returns, Exception Handling, Arbitrary control structures, Control Structures @subsection Calls and returns @cindex calling a definition @cindex returning from a definition @cindex recursive definitions A definition can be called simply be writing the name of the definition to be called. Note that normally a definition is invisible during its definition. If you want to write a directly recursive definition, you can use @code{recursive} to make the current definition visible. doc-recursive Another way to perform a recursive call is doc-recurse @quotation @progstyle I prefer using @code{recursive} to @code{recurse}, because calling the definition by name is more descriptive (if the name is well-chosen) than the somewhat cryptic @code{recurse}. E.g., in a quicksort implementation, it is much better to read (and think) ``now sort the partitions'' than to read ``now do a recursive call''. @end quotation For mutual recursion, use @code{defer}red words, like this: @example defer foo : bar ( ... -- ... ) ... foo ... ; :noname ( ... -- ... ) ... bar ... ; IS foo @end example When the end of the definition is reached, it returns. An earlier return can be forced using doc-exit Don't forget to clean up the return stack and @code{UNLOOP} any outstanding @code{?DO}...@code{LOOP}s before @code{EXIT}ing. The primitive compiled by @code{EXIT} is doc-;s @node Exception Handling, , Calls and returns, Control Structures @subsection Exception Handling @cindex Exceptions doc-catch doc-throw @node Locals, Defining Words, Control Structures, Words @section Locals @cindex locals Local variables can make Forth programming more enjoyable and Forth programs easier to read. Unfortunately, the locals of ANS Forth are laden with restrictions. Therefore, we provide not only the ANS Forth locals wordset, but also our own, more powerful locals wordset (we implemented the ANS Forth locals wordset through our locals wordset). The ideas in this section have also been published in the paper @cite{Automatic Scoping of Local Variables} by M. Anton Ertl, presented at EuroForth '94; it is available at @*@url{http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/papers/ertl94l.ps.gz}. @menu * Gforth locals:: * ANS Forth locals:: @end menu @node Gforth locals, ANS Forth locals, Locals, Locals @subsection Gforth locals @cindex Gforth locals @cindex locals, Gforth style Locals can be defined with @example @{ local1 local2 ... -- comment @} @end example or @example @{ local1 local2 ... @} @end example E.g., @example : max @{ n1 n2 -- n3 @} n1 n2 > if n1 else n2 endif ; @end example The similarity of locals definitions with stack comments is intended. A locals definition often replaces the stack comment of a word. The order of the locals corresponds to the order in a stack comment and everything after the @code{--} is really a comment. This similarity has one disadvantage: It is too easy to confuse locals declarations with stack comments, causing bugs and making them hard to find. However, this problem can be avoided by appropriate coding conventions: Do not use both notations in the same program. If you do, they should be distinguished using additional means, e.g. by position. @cindex types of locals @cindex locals types The name of the local may be preceded by a type specifier, e.g., @code{F:} for a floating point value: @example : CX* @{ F: Ar F: Ai F: Br F: Bi -- Cr Ci @} \ complex multiplication Ar Br f* Ai Bi f* f- Ar Bi f* Ai Br f* f+ ; @end example @cindex flavours of locals @cindex locals flavours @cindex value-flavoured locals @cindex variable-flavoured locals Gforth currently supports cells (@code{W:}, @code{W^}), doubles (@code{D:}, @code{D^}), floats (@code{F:}, @code{F^}) and characters (@code{C:}, @code{C^}) in two flavours: a value-flavoured local (defined with @code{W:}, @code{D:} etc.) produces its value and can be changed with @code{TO}. A variable-flavoured local (defined with @code{W^} etc.) produces its address (which becomes invalid when the variable's scope is left). E.g., the standard word @code{emit} can be defined in terms of @code{type} like this: @example : emit @{ C^ char* -- @} char* 1 type ; @end example @cindex default type of locals @cindex locals, default type A local without type specifier is a @code{W:} local. Both flavours of locals are initialized with values from the data or FP stack. Currently there is no way to define locals with user-defined data structures, but we are working on it. Gforth allows defining locals everywhere in a colon definition. This poses the following questions: @menu * Where are locals visible by name?:: * How long do locals live?:: * Programming Style:: * Implementation:: @end menu @node Where are locals visible by name?, How long do locals live?, Gforth locals, Gforth locals @subsubsection Where are locals visible by name? @cindex locals visibility @cindex visibility of locals @cindex scope of locals Basically, the answer is that locals are visible where you would expect it in block-structured languages, and sometimes a little longer. If you want to restrict the scope of a local, enclose its definition in @code{SCOPE}...@code{ENDSCOPE}. doc-scope doc-endscope These words behave like control structure words, so you can use them with @code{CS-PICK} and @code{CS-ROLL} to restrict the scope in arbitrary ways. If you want a more exact answer to the visibility question, here's the basic principle: A local is visible in all places that can only be reached through the definition of the local@footnote{In compiler construction terminology, all places dominated by the definition of the local.}. In other words, it is not visible in places that can be reached without going through the definition of the local. E.g., locals defined in @code{IF}...@code{ENDIF} are visible until the @code{ENDIF}, locals defined in @code{BEGIN}...@code{UNTIL} are visible after the @code{UNTIL} (until, e.g., a subsequent @code{ENDSCOPE}). The reasoning behind this solution is: We want to have the locals visible as long as it is meaningful. The user can always make the visibility shorter by using explicit scoping. In a place that can only be reached through the definition of a local, the meaning of a local name is clear. In other places it is not: How is the local initialized at the control flow path that does not contain the definition? Which local is meant, if the same name is defined twice in two independent control flow paths? This should be enough detail for nearly all users, so you can skip the rest of this section. If you really must know all the gory details and options, read on. In order to implement this rule, the compiler has to know which places are unreachable. It knows this automatically after @code{AHEAD}, @code{AGAIN}, @code{EXIT} and @code{LEAVE}; in other cases (e.g., after most @code{THROW}s), you can use the word @code{UNREACHABLE} to tell the compiler that the control flow never reaches that place. If @code{UNREACHABLE} is not used where it could, the only consequence is that the visibility of some locals is more limited than the rule above says. If @code{UNREACHABLE} is used where it should not (i.e., if you lie to the compiler), buggy code will be produced. doc-unreachable Another problem with this rule is that at @code{BEGIN}, the compiler does not know which locals will be visible on the incoming back-edge. All problems discussed in the following are due to this ignorance of the compiler (we discuss the problems using @code{BEGIN} loops as examples; the discussion also applies to @code{?DO} and other loops). Perhaps the most insidious example is: @example AHEAD BEGIN x [ 1 CS-ROLL ] THEN @{ x @} ... UNTIL @end example This should be legal according to the visibility rule. The use of @code{x} can only be reached through the definition; but that appears textually below the use. From this example it is clear that the visibility rules cannot be fully implemented without major headaches. Our implementation treats common cases as advertised and the exceptions are treated in a safe way: The compiler makes a reasonable guess about the locals visible after a @code{BEGIN}; if it is too pessimistic, the user will get a spurious error about the local not being defined; if the compiler is too optimistic, it will notice this later and issue a warning. In the case above the compiler would complain about @code{x} being undefined at its use. You can see from the obscure examples in this section that it takes quite unusual control structures to get the compiler into trouble, and even then it will often do fine. If the @code{BEGIN} is reachable from above, the most optimistic guess is that all locals visible before the @code{BEGIN} will also be visible after the @code{BEGIN}. This guess is valid for all loops that are entered only through the @code{BEGIN}, in particular, for normal @code{BEGIN}...@code{WHILE}...@code{REPEAT} and @code{BEGIN}...@code{UNTIL} loops and it is implemented in our compiler. When the branch to the @code{BEGIN} is finally generated by @code{AGAIN} or @code{UNTIL}, the compiler checks the guess and warns the user if it was too optimistic: @example IF @{ x @} BEGIN \ x ? [ 1 cs-roll ] THEN ... UNTIL @end example Here, @code{x} lives only until the @code{BEGIN}, but the compiler optimistically assumes that it lives until the @code{THEN}. It notices this difference when it compiles the @code{UNTIL} and issues a warning. The user can avoid the warning, and make sure that @code{x} is not used in the wrong area by using explicit scoping: @example IF SCOPE @{ x @} ENDSCOPE BEGIN [ 1 cs-roll ] THEN ... UNTIL @end example Since the guess is optimistic, there will be no spurious error messages about undefined locals. If the @code{BEGIN} is not reachable from above (e.g., after @code{AHEAD} or @code{EXIT}), the compiler cannot even make an optimistic guess, as the locals visible after the @code{BEGIN} may be defined later. Therefore, the compiler assumes that no locals are visible after the @code{BEGIN}. However, the user can use @code{ASSUME-LIVE} to make the compiler assume that the same locals are visible at the BEGIN as at the point where the top control-flow stack item was created. doc-assume-live E.g., @example @{ x @} AHEAD ASSUME-LIVE BEGIN x [ 1 CS-ROLL ] THEN ... UNTIL @end example Other cases where the locals are defined before the @code{BEGIN} can be handled by inserting an appropriate @code{CS-ROLL} before the @code{ASSUME-LIVE} (and changing the control-flow stack manipulation behind the @code{ASSUME-LIVE}). Cases where locals are defined after the @code{BEGIN} (but should be visible immediately after the @code{BEGIN}) can only be handled by rearranging the loop. E.g., the ``most insidious'' example above can be arranged into: @example BEGIN @{ x @} ... 0= WHILE x REPEAT @end example @node How long do locals live?, Programming Style, Where are locals visible by name?, Gforth locals @subsubsection How long do locals live? @cindex locals lifetime @cindex lifetime of locals The right answer for the lifetime question would be: A local lives at least as long as it can be accessed. For a value-flavoured local this means: until the end of its visibility. However, a variable-flavoured local could be accessed through its address far beyond its visibility scope. Ultimately, this would mean that such locals would have to be garbage collected. Since this entails un-Forth-like implementation complexities, I adopted the same cowardly solution as some other languages (e.g., C): The local lives only as long as it is visible; afterwards its address is invalid (and programs that access it afterwards are erroneous). @node Programming Style, Implementation, How long do locals live?, Gforth locals @subsubsection Programming Style @cindex locals programming style @cindex programming style, locals The freedom to define locals anywhere has the potential to change programming styles dramatically. In particular, the need to use the return stack for intermediate storage vanishes. Moreover, all stack manipulations (except @code{PICK}s and @code{ROLL}s with run-time determined arguments) can be eliminated: If the stack items are in the wrong order, just write a locals definition for all of them; then write the items in the order you want. This seems a little far-fetched and eliminating stack manipulations is unlikely to become a conscious programming objective. Still, the number of stack manipulations will be reduced dramatically if local variables are used liberally (e.g., compare @code{max} in @ref{Gforth locals} with a traditional implementation of @code{max}). This shows one potential benefit of locals: making Forth programs more readable. Of course, this benefit will only be realized if the programmers continue to honour the principle of factoring instead of using the added latitude to make the words longer. @cindex single-assignment style for locals Using @code{TO} can and should be avoided. Without @code{TO}, every value-flavoured local has only a single assignment and many advantages of functional languages apply to Forth. I.e., programs are easier to analyse, to optimize and to read: It is clear from the definition what the local stands for, it does not turn into something different later. E.g., a definition using @code{TO} might look like this: @example : strcmp @{ addr1 u1 addr2 u2 -- n @} u1 u2 min 0 ?do addr1 c@@ addr2 c@@ - ?dup-if unloop exit then addr1 char+ TO addr1 addr2 char+ TO addr2 loop u1 u2 - ; @end example Here, @code{TO} is used to update @code{addr1} and @code{addr2} at every loop iteration. @code{strcmp} is a typical example of the readability problems of using @code{TO}. When you start reading @code{strcmp}, you think that @code{addr1} refers to the start of the string. Only near the end of the loop you realize that it is something else. This can be avoided by defining two locals at the start of the loop that are initialized with the right value for the current iteration. @example : strcmp @{ addr1 u1 addr2 u2 -- n @} addr1 addr2 u1 u2 min 0 ?do @{ s1 s2 @} s1 c@@ s2 c@@ - ?dup-if unloop exit then s1 char+ s2 char+ loop 2drop u1 u2 - ; @end example Here it is clear from the start that @code{s1} has a different value in every loop iteration. @node Implementation, , Programming Style, Gforth locals @subsubsection Implementation @cindex locals implementation @cindex implementation of locals @cindex locals stack Gforth uses an extra locals stack. The most compelling reason for this is that the return stack is not float-aligned; using an extra stack also eliminates the problems and restrictions of using the return stack as locals stack. Like the other stacks, the locals stack grows toward lower addresses. A few primitives allow an efficient implementation: doc-@local# doc-f@local# doc-laddr# doc-lp+!# doc-lp! doc->l doc-f>l In addition to these primitives, some specializations of these primitives for commonly occurring inline arguments are provided for efficiency reasons, e.g., @code{@@local0} as specialization of @code{@@local#} for the inline argument 0. The following compiling words compile the right specialized version, or the general version, as appropriate: doc-compile-@local doc-compile-f@local doc-compile-lp+! Combinations of conditional branches and @code{lp+!#} like @code{?branch-lp+!#} (the locals pointer is only changed if the branch is taken) are provided for efficiency and correctness in loops. A special area in the dictionary space is reserved for keeping the local variable names. @code{@{} switches the dictionary pointer to this area and @code{@}} switches it back and generates the locals initializing code. @code{W:} etc.@ are normal defining words. This special area is cleared at the start of every colon definition. @cindex wordlist for defining locals A special feature of Gforth's dictionary is used to implement the definition of locals without type specifiers: every wordlist (aka vocabulary) has its own methods for searching etc. (@pxref{Wordlists}). For the present purpose we defined a wordlist with a special search method: When it is searched for a word, it actually creates that word using @code{W:}. @code{@{} changes the search order to first search the wordlist containing @code{@}}, @code{W:} etc., and then the wordlist for defining locals without type specifiers. The lifetime rules support a stack discipline within a colon definition: The lifetime of a local is either nested with other locals lifetimes or it does not overlap them. At @code{BEGIN}, @code{IF}, and @code{AHEAD} no code for locals stack pointer manipulation is generated. Between control structure words locals definitions can push locals onto the locals stack. @code{AGAIN} is the simplest of the other three control flow words. It has to restore the locals stack depth of the corresponding @code{BEGIN} before branching. The code looks like this: @format @code{lp+!#} current-locals-size @minus{} dest-locals-size @code{branch} @end format @code{UNTIL} is a little more complicated: If it branches back, it must adjust the stack just like @code{AGAIN}. But if it falls through, the locals stack must not be changed. The compiler generates the following code: @format @code{?branch-lp+!#} current-locals-size @minus{} dest-locals-size @end format The locals stack pointer is only adjusted if the branch is taken. @code{THEN} can produce somewhat inefficient code: @format @code{lp+!#} current-locals-size @minus{} orig-locals-size : @code{lp+!#} orig-locals-size @minus{} new-locals-size @end format The second @code{lp+!#} adjusts the locals stack pointer from the level at the @var{orig} point to the level after the @code{THEN}. The first @code{lp+!#} adjusts the locals stack pointer from the current level to the level at the orig point, so the complete effect is an adjustment from the current level to the right level after the @code{THEN}. @cindex locals information on the control-flow stack @cindex control-flow stack items, locals information In a conventional Forth implementation a dest control-flow stack entry is just the target address and an orig entry is just the address to be patched. Our locals implementation adds a wordlist to every orig or dest item. It is the list of locals visible (or assumed visible) at the point described by the entry. Our implementation also adds a tag to identify the kind of entry, in particular to differentiate between live and dead (reachable and unreachable) orig entries. A few unusual operations have to be performed on locals wordlists: doc-common-list doc-sub-list? doc-list-size Several features of our locals wordlist implementation make these operations easy to implement: The locals wordlists are organised as linked lists; the tails of these lists are shared, if the lists contain some of the same locals; and the address of a name is greater than the address of the names behind it in the list. Another important implementation detail is the variable @code{dead-code}. It is used by @code{BEGIN} and @code{THEN} to determine if they can be reached directly or only through the branch that they resolve. @code{dead-code} is set by @code{UNREACHABLE}, @code{AHEAD}, @code{EXIT} etc., and cleared at the start of a colon definition, by @code{BEGIN} and usually by @code{THEN}. Counted loops are similar to other loops in most respects, but @code{LEAVE} requires special attention: It performs basically the same service as @code{AHEAD}, but it does not create a control-flow stack entry. Therefore the information has to be stored elsewhere; traditionally, the information was stored in the target fields of the branches created by the @code{LEAVE}s, by organizing these fields into a linked list. Unfortunately, this clever trick does not provide enough space for storing our extended control flow information. Therefore, we introduce another stack, the leave stack. It contains the control-flow stack entries for all unresolved @code{LEAVE}s. Local names are kept until the end of the colon definition, even if they are no longer visible in any control-flow path. In a few cases this may lead to increased space needs for the locals name area, but usually less than reclaiming this space would cost in code size. @node ANS Forth locals, , Gforth locals, Locals @subsection ANS Forth locals @cindex locals, ANS Forth style The ANS Forth locals wordset does not define a syntax for locals, but words that make it possible to define various syntaxes. One of the possible syntaxes is a subset of the syntax we used in the Gforth locals wordset, i.e.: @example @{ local1 local2 ... -- comment @} @end example or @example @{ local1 local2 ... @} @end example The order of the locals corresponds to the order in a stack comment. The restrictions are: @itemize @bullet @item Locals can only be cell-sized values (no type specifiers are allowed). @item Locals can be defined only outside control structures. @item Locals can interfere with explicit usage of the return stack. For the exact (and long) rules, see the standard. If you don't use return stack accessing words in a definition using locals, you will be all right. The purpose of this rule is to make locals implementation on the return stack easier. @item The whole definition must be in one line. @end itemize Locals defined in this way behave like @code{VALUE}s (@xref{Simple Defining Words}). I.e., they are initialized from the stack. Using their name produces their value. Their value can be changed using @code{TO}. Since this syntax is supported by Gforth directly, you need not do anything to use it. If you want to port a program using this syntax to another ANS Forth system, use @file{compat/anslocal.fs} to implement the syntax on the other system. Note that a syntax shown in the standard, section A.13 looks similar, but is quite different in having the order of locals reversed. Beware! The ANS Forth locals wordset itself consists of the following word doc-(local) The ANS Forth locals extension wordset defines a syntax, but it is so awful that we strongly recommend not to use it. We have implemented this syntax to make porting to Gforth easy, but do not document it here. The problem with this syntax is that the locals are defined in an order reversed with respect to the standard stack comment notation, making programs harder to read, and easier to misread and miswrite. The only merit of this syntax is that it is easy to implement using the ANS Forth locals wordset. @node Defining Words, Structures, Locals, Words @section Defining Words @cindex defining words @menu * Simple Defining Words:: * Colon Definitions:: * User-defined Defining Words:: * Supplying names:: * Interpretation and Compilation Semantics:: @end menu @node Simple Defining Words, Colon Definitions, Defining Words, Defining Words @subsection Simple Defining Words @cindex simple defining words @cindex defining words, simple doc-constant doc-2constant doc-fconstant doc-variable doc-2variable doc-fvariable doc-create doc-user doc-value doc-to doc-defer doc-is @node Colon Definitions, User-defined Defining Words, Simple Defining Words, Defining Words @subsection Colon Definitions @cindex colon definitions @example : name ( ... -- ... ) word1 word2 word3 ; @end example creates a word called @code{name}, that, upon execution, executes @code{word1 word2 word3}. @code{name} is a @dfn{(colon) definition}. The explanation above is somewhat superficial. @xref{Interpretation and Compilation Semantics} for an in-depth discussion of some of the issues involved. doc-: doc-; @node User-defined Defining Words, Supplying names, Colon Definitions, Defining Words @subsection User-defined Defining Words @cindex user-defined defining words @cindex defining words, user-defined You can create new defining words simply by wrapping defining-time code around existing defining words and putting the sequence in a colon definition. @cindex @code{CREATE} ... @code{DOES>} If you want the words defined with your defining words to behave differently from words defined with standard defining words, you can write your defining word like this: @example : def-word ( "name" -- ) Create @var{code1} DOES> ( ... -- ... ) @var{code2} ; def-word name @end example Technically, this fragment defines a defining word @code{def-word}, and a word @code{name}; when you execute @code{name}, the address of the body of @code{name} is put on the data stack and @var{code2} is executed (the address of the body of @code{name} is the address @code{HERE} returns immediately after the @code{CREATE}). In other words, if you make the following definitions: @example : def-word1 ( "name" -- ) Create @var{code1} ; : action1 ( ... -- ... ) @var{code2} ; def-word name1 @end example Using @code{name1 action1} is equivalent to using @code{name}. E.g., you can implement @code{Constant} in this way: @example : constant ( w "name" -- ) create , DOES> ( -- w ) @@ ; @end example When you create a constant with @code{5 constant five}, first a new word @code{five} is created, then the value 5 is laid down in the body of @code{five} with @code{,}. When @code{five} is invoked, the address of the body is put on the stack, and @code{@@} retrieves the value 5. @cindex stack effect of @code{DOES>}-parts @cindex @code{DOES>}-parts, stack effect In the example above the stack comment after the @code{DOES>} specifies the stack effect of the defined words, not the stack effect of the following code (the following code expects the address of the body on the top of stack, which is not reflected in the stack comment). This is the convention that I use and recommend (it clashes a bit with using locals declarations for stack effect specification, though). @subsubsection Applications of @code{CREATE..DOES>} @cindex @code{CREATE} ... @code{DOES>}, applications You may wonder how to use this feature. Here are some usage patterns: @cindex factoring similar colon definitions When you see a sequence of code occurring several times, and you can identify a meaning, you will factor it out as a colon definition. When you see similar colon definitions, you can factor them using @code{CREATE..DOES>}. E.g., an assembler usually defines several words that look very similar: @example : ori, ( reg-target reg-source n -- ) 0 asm-reg-reg-imm ; : andi, ( reg-target reg-source n -- ) 1 asm-reg-reg-imm ; @end example This could be factored with: @example : reg-reg-imm ( op-code -- ) create , DOES> ( reg-target reg-source n -- ) @@ asm-reg-reg-imm ; 0 reg-reg-imm ori, 1 reg-reg-imm andi, @end example @cindex currying Another view of @code{CREATE..DOES>} is to consider it as a crude way to supply a part of the parameters for a word (known as @dfn{currying} in the functional language community). E.g., @code{+} needs two parameters. Creating versions of @code{+} with one parameter fixed can be done like this: @example : curry+ ( n1 -- ) create , DOES> ( n2 -- n1+n2 ) @@ + ; 3 curry+ 3+ -2 curry+ 2- @end example @subsubsection The gory details of @code{CREATE..DOES>} @cindex @code{CREATE} ... @code{DOES>}, details doc-does> @cindex @code{DOES>} in a separate definition This means that you need not use @code{CREATE} and @code{DOES>} in the same definition; E.g., you can put the @code{DOES>}-part in a separate definition. This allows us to, e.g., select among different DOES>-parts: @example : does1 DOES> ( ... -- ... ) ... ; : does2 DOES> ( ... -- ... ) ... ; : def-word ( ... -- ... ) create ... IF does1 ELSE does2 ENDIF ; @end example @cindex @code{DOES>} in interpretation state In a standard program you can apply a @code{DOES>}-part only if the last word was defined with @code{CREATE}. In Gforth, the @code{DOES>}-part will override the behaviour of the last word defined in any case. In a standard program, you can use @code{DOES>} only in a colon definition. In Gforth, you can also use it in interpretation state, in a kind of one-shot mode: @example CREATE name ( ... -- ... ) @var{initialization} DOES> @var{code} ; @end example This is equivalent to the standard @example :noname DOES> @var{code} ; CREATE name EXECUTE ( ... -- ... ) @var{initialization} @end example You can get the address of the body of a word with doc->body @node Supplying names, Interpretation and Compilation Semantics, User-defined Defining Words, Defining Words @subsection Supplying names for the defined words @cindex names for defined words @cindex defining words, name parameter @cindex defining words, name given in a string By default, defining words take the names for the defined words from the input stream. Sometimes you want to supply the name from a string. You can do this with doc-nextname E.g., @example s" foo" nextname create @end example is equivalent to @example create foo @end example @cindex defining words without name Sometimes you want to define a word without a name. You can do this with doc-noname @cindex execution token of last defined word To make any use of the newly defined word, you need its execution token. You can get it with doc-lastxt E.g., you can initialize a deferred word with an anonymous colon definition: @example Defer deferred noname : ( ... -- ... ) ... ; lastxt IS deferred @end example @code{lastxt} also works when the last word was not defined as @code{noname}. The standard has also recognized the need for anonymous words and provides doc-:noname This leaves the execution token for the word on the stack after the closing @code{;}. You can rewrite the last example with @code{:noname}: @example Defer deferred :noname ( ... -- ... ) ... ; IS deferred @end example @node Interpretation and Compilation Semantics, , Supplying names, Defining Words @subsection Interpretation and Compilation Semantics @cindex semantics, interpretation and compilation @cindex interpretation semantics The @dfn{interpretation semantics} of a word are what the text interpreter does when it encounters the word in interpret state. It also appears in some other contexts, e.g., the execution token returned by @code{' @var{word}} identifies the interpretation semantics of @var{word} (in other words, @code{' @var{word} execute} is equivalent to interpret-state text interpretation of @code{@var{word}}). @cindex compilation semantics The @dfn{compilation semantics} of a word are what the text interpreter does when it encounters the word in compile state. It also appears in other contexts, e.g, @code{POSTPONE @var{word}} compiles@footnote{In standard terminology, ``appends to the current definition''.} the compilation semantics of @var{word}. @cindex execution semantics The standard also talks about @dfn{execution semantics}. They are used only for defining the interpretation and compilation semantics of many words. By default, the interpretation semantics of a word are to @code{execute} its execution semantics, and the compilation semantics of a word are to @code{compile,} its execution semantics.@footnote{In standard terminology: The default interpretation semantics are its execution semantics; the default compilation semantics are to append its execution semantics to the execution semantics of the current definition.} @cindex immediate words You can change the compilation semantics into @code{execute}ing the execution semantics with doc-immediate @cindex compile-only words You can remove the interpretation semantics of a word with doc-compile-only doc-restrict Note that ticking (@code{'}) compile-only words gives an error (``Interpreting a compile-only word''). Gforth also allows you to define words with arbitrary combinations of interpretation and compilation semantics. doc-interpret/compile: This feature was introduced for implementing @code{TO} and @code{S"}. I recommend that you do not define such words, as cute as they may be: they make it hard to get at both parts of the word in some contexts. E.g., assume you want to get an execution token for the compilation part. Instead, define two words, one that embodies the interpretation part, and one that embodies the compilation part. Once you have done that, you can define a combined word with @code{interpret/compile:} for the convenience of your users. You also might try to provide an optimizing implementation of the default compilation semantics with this feature, like this: @example :noname foo bar ; :noname POSTPONE foo POSTPONE bar ; interpret/compile: foobar @end example as an optimizing version of @example : foobar foo bar ; @end example Unfortunately, this does not work correctly with @code{[compile]}, because @code{[compile]} assumes that the compilation semantics of all @code{interpret/compile:} words are non-default. I.e., @code{[compile] foobar} would compile the compilation semantics for the optimizing @code{foobar}, whereas it would compile the interpretation semantics for the non-optimizing @code{foobar}. @cindex state-smart words are a bad idea Some people try to use state-smart words to emulate the feature provided by @code{interpret/compile:} (words are state-smart if they check @code{STATE} during execution). E.g., they would try to code @code{foobar} like this: @example : foobar STATE @@ IF ( compilation state ) POSTPONE foo POSTPONE bar ELSE foo bar ENDIF ; immediate @end example While this works if @code{foobar} is processed only by the text interpreter, it does not work in other contexts (like @code{'} or @code{POSTPONE}). E.g., @code{' foobar} will produce an execution token for a state-smart word, not for the interpretation semantics of the original @code{foobar}; when you execute this execution token (directly with @code{EXECUTE} or indirectly through @code{COMPILE,}) in compile state, the result will not be what you expected (i.e., it will not perform @code{foo bar}). State-smart words are a bad idea. Simply don't write them! @cindex defining words with arbitrary semantics combinations It is also possible to write defining words that define words with arbitrary combinations of interpretation and compilation semantics. In general, this looks like: @example : def-word create-interpret/compile @var{code1} interpretation> @var{code2} @var{code3} ( -- n ) @@ ( compilation. -- ; run-time. -- n ) @@ postpone literal doc- doc-body} also gives you the body of a word created with @code{create-interpret/compile}. @c ---------------------------------------------------------- @node Structures, Object-oriented Forth, Defining Words, Words @section Structures @cindex structures @cindex records This section presents the structure package that comes with Gforth. A version of the package implemented in plain ANS Forth is available in @file{compat/struct.fs}. This package was inspired by a posting on comp.lang.forth in 1989 (unfortunately I don't remember, by whom; possibly John Hayes). A version of this section has been published in ???. Marcel Hendrix provided helpful comments. @menu * Why explicit structure support?:: * Structure Usage:: * Structure Naming Convention:: * Structure Implementation:: * Structure Glossary:: @end menu @node Why explicit structure support?, Structure Usage, Structures, Structures @subsection Why explicit structure support? @cindex address arithmetic for structures @cindex structures using address arithmetic If we want to use a structure containing several fields, we could simply reserve memory for it, and access the fields using address arithmetic (@pxref{Address arithmetic}). As an example, consider a structure with the following fields @table @code @item a is a float @item b is a cell @item c is a float @end table Given the (float-aligned) base address of the structure we get the address of the field @table @code @item a without doing anything further. @item b with @code{float+} @item c with @code{float+ cell+ faligned} @end table It is easy to see that this can become quite tiring. Moreover, it is not very readable, because seeing a @code{cell+} tells us neither which kind of structure is accessed nor what field is accessed; we have to somehow infer the kind of structure, and then look up in the documentation, which field of that structure corresponds to that offset. Finally, this kind of address arithmetic also causes maintenance troubles: If you add or delete a field somewhere in the middle of the structure, you have to find and change all computations for the fields afterwards. So, instead of using @code{cell+} and friends directly, how about storing the offsets in constants: @example 0 constant a-offset 0 float+ constant b-offset 0 float+ cell+ faligned c-offset @end example Now we can get the address of field @code{x} with @code{x-offset +}. This is much better in all respects. Of course, you still have to change all later offset definitions if you add a field. You can fix this by declaring the offsets in the following way: @example 0 constant a-offset a-offset float+ constant b-offset b-offset cell+ faligned constant c-offset @end example Since we always use the offsets with @code{+}, using a defining word @code{cfield} that includes the @code{+} in the action of the defined word offers itself: @example : cfield ( n "name" -- ) create , does> ( name execution: addr1 -- addr2 ) @@ + ; 0 cfield a 0 a float+ cfield b 0 b cell+ faligned cfield c @end example Instead of @code{x-offset +}, we now simply write @code{x}. The structure field words now can be used quite nicely. However, their definition is still a bit cumbersome: We have to repeat the name, the information about size and alignment is distributed before and after the field definitions etc. The structure package presented here addresses these problems. @node Structure Usage, Structure Naming Convention, Why explicit structure support?, Structures @subsection Structure Usage @cindex structure usage @cindex @code{field} usage @cindex @code{struct} usage @cindex @code{end-struct} usage You can define a structure for a (data-less) linked list with @example struct cell% field list-next end-struct list% @end example With the address of the list node on the stack, you can compute the address of the field that contains the address of the next node with @code{list-next}. E.g., you can determine the length of a list with: @example : list-length ( list -- n ) \ "list" is a pointer to the first element of a linked list \ "n" is the length of the list 0 begin ( list1 n1 ) over while ( list1 n1 ) 1+ swap list-next @@ swap repeat nip ; @end example You can reserve memory for a list node in the dictionary with @code{list% %allot}, which leaves the address of the list node on the stack. For the equivalent allocation on the heap you can use @code{list% %alloc} (or, for an @code{allocate}-like stack effect (i.e., with ior), use @code{list% %allocate}). You can also get the the size of a list node with @code{list% %size} and it's alignment with @code{list% %alignment}. Note that in ANS Forth the body of a @code{create}d word is @code{aligned} but not necessarily @code{faligned}; therefore, if you do a @example create @emph{name} foo% %allot @end example then the memory alloted for @code{foo%} is guaranteed to start at the body of @code{@emph{name}} only if @code{foo%} contains only character, cell and double fields. @cindex strcutures containing structures You can also include a structure @code{foo%} as field of another structure, with: @example struct ... foo% field ... ... end-struct ... @end example @cindex structure extension @cindex extended records Instead of starting with an empty structure, you can also extend an existing structure. E.g., a plain linked list without data, as defined above, is hardly useful; You can extend it to a linked list of integers, like this:@footnote{This feature is also known as @emph{extended records}. It is the main innovation in the Oberon language; in other words, adding this feature to Modula-2 led Wirth to create a new language, write a new compiler etc. Adding this feature to Forth just requires a few lines of code.} @example list% cell% field intlist-int end-struct intlist% @end example @code{intlist%} is a structure with two fields: @code{list-next} and @code{intlist-int}. @cindex structures containing arrays You can specify an array type containing @emph{n} elements of type @code{foo%} like this: @example foo% @emph{n} * @end example You can use this array type in any place where you can use a normal type, e.g., when defining a @code{field}, or with @code{%allot}. @cindex first field optimization The first field is at the base address of a structure and the word for this field (e.g., @code{list-next}) actually does not change the address on the stack. You may be tempted to leave it away in the interest of run-time and space efficiency. This is not necessary, because the structure package optimizes this case and compiling such words does not generate any code. So, in the interest of readability and maintainability you should include the word for the field when accessing the field. @node Structure Naming Convention, Structure Implementation, Structure Usage, Structures @subsection Structure Naming Convention @cindex structure naming conventions The field names that come to (my) mind are often quite generic, and, if used, would cause frequent name clashes. E.g., many structures probably contain a @code{counter} field. The structure names that come to (my) mind are often also the logical choice for the names of words that create such a structure. Therefore, I have adopted the following naming conventions: @itemize @bullet @cindex field naming convention @item The names of fields are of the form @code{@emph{struct}-@emph{field}}, where @code{@emph{struct}} is the basic name of the structure, and @code{@emph{field}} is the basic name of the field. You can think about field words as converting converts the (address of the) structure into the (address of the) field. @cindex structure naming convention @item The names of structures are of the form @code{@emph{struct}%}, where @code{@emph{struct}} is the basic name of the structure. @end itemize This naming convention does not work that well for fields of extended structures; e.g., the integer list structure has a field @code{intlist-int}, but has @code{list-next}, not @code{intlist-next}. @node Structure Implementation, Structure Glossary, Structure Naming Convention, Structures @subsection Structure Implementation @cindex structure implementation @cindex implementation of structures The central idea in the implementation is to pass the data about the structure being built on the stack, not in some global variable. Everything else falls into place naturally once this design decision is made. The type description on the stack is of the form @emph{align size}. Keeping the size on the top-of-stack makes dealing with arrays very simple. @code{field} is a defining word that uses @code{create} and @code{does>}. The body of the field contains the offset of the field, and the normal @code{does>} action is @example @ + @end example i.e., add the offset to the address, giving the stack effect @code{addr1 -- addr2} for a field. @cindex first field optimization, implementation This simple structure is slightly complicated by the optimization for fields with offset 0, which requires a different @code{does>}-part (because we cannot rely on there being something on the stack if such a field is invoked during compilation). Therefore, we put the different @code{does>}-parts in separate words, and decide which one to invoke based on the offset. For a zero offset, the field is basically a noop; it is immediate, and therefore no code is generated when it is compiled. @node Structure Glossary, , Structure Implementation, Structures @subsection Structure Glossary @cindex structure glossary doc-%align doc-%alignment doc-%alloc doc-%allocate doc-%allot doc-cell% doc-char% doc-dfloat% doc-double% doc-end-struct doc-field doc-float% doc-nalign doc-sfloat% doc-%size doc-struct @c ------------------------------------------------------------- @node Object-oriented Forth, Tokens for Words, Structures, Words @section Object-oriented Forth Gforth comes with three packets for object-oriented programming, @file{objects.fs}, @file{oof.fs}, and @file{mini-oof.fs}; none of them is preloaded, so you have to @code{include} them before use. The most important differences between these packets (and others) are discussed in @ref{Comparison with other object models}. All packets are written in ANS Forth and can be used with any other ANS Forth. @menu * Objects:: * OOF:: * Mini-OOF:: @end menu @node Objects, OOF, Object-oriented Forth, Object-oriented Forth @subsection Objects @cindex objects @cindex object-oriented programming @cindex @file{objects.fs} @cindex @file{oof.fs} This section describes the @file{objects.fs} packet. This material also has been published in @cite{Yet Another Forth Objects Package} by Anton Ertl and appeared in Forth Dimensions 19(2), pages 37--43 (@url{http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/forth/objects/objects.html}). @c McKewan's and Zsoter's packages This section assumes (in some places) that you have read @ref{Structures}. @menu * Properties of the Objects model:: * Why object-oriented programming?:: * Object-Oriented Terminology:: * Basic Objects Usage:: * The class Object:: * Creating objects:: * Object-Oriented Programming Style:: * Class Binding:: * Method conveniences:: * Classes and Scoping:: * Object Interfaces:: * Objects Implementation:: * Comparison with other object models:: * Objects Glossary:: @end menu Marcel Hendrix provided helpful comments on this section. Andras Zsoter and Bernd Paysan helped me with the related works section. @node Properties of the Objects model, Why object-oriented programming?, Objects, Objects @subsubsection Properties of the @file{objects.fs} model @cindex @file{objects.fs} properties @itemize @bullet @item It is straightforward to pass objects on the stack. Passing selectors on the stack is a little less convenient, but possible. @item Objects are just data structures in memory, and are referenced by their address. You can create words for objects with normal defining words like @code{constant}. Likewise, there is no difference between instance variables that contain objects and those that contain other data. @item Late binding is efficient and easy to use. @item It avoids parsing, and thus avoids problems with state-smartness and reduced extensibility; for convenience there are a few parsing words, but they have non-parsing counterparts. There are also a few defining words that parse. This is hard to avoid, because all standard defining words parse (except @code{:noname}); however, such words are not as bad as many other parsing words, because they are not state-smart. @item It does not try to incorporate everything. It does a few things and does them well (IMO). In particular, I did not intend to support information hiding with this model (although it has features that may help); you can use a separate package for achieving this. @item It is layered; you don't have to learn and use all features to use this model. Only a few features are necessary (@xref{Basic Objects Usage}, @xref{The class Object}, @xref{Creating objects}.), the others are optional and independent of each other. @item An implementation in ANS Forth is available. @end itemize I have used the technique, on which this model is based, for implementing the parser generator Gray; we have also used this technique in Gforth for implementing the various flavours of wordlists (hashed or not, case-sensitive or not, special-purpose wordlists for locals etc.). @node Why object-oriented programming?, Object-Oriented Terminology, Properties of the Objects model, Objects @subsubsection Why object-oriented programming? @cindex object-oriented programming motivation @cindex motivation for object-oriented programming Often we have to deal with several data structures (@emph{objects}), that have to be treated similarly in some respects, but differ in others. Graphical objects are the textbook example: circles, triangles, dinosaurs, icons, and others, and we may want to add more during program development. We want to apply some operations to any graphical object, e.g., @code{draw} for displaying it on the screen. However, @code{draw} has to do something different for every kind of object. We could implement @code{draw} as a big @code{CASE} control structure that executes the appropriate code depending on the kind of object to be drawn. This would be not be very elegant, and, moreover, we would have to change @code{draw} every time we add a new kind of graphical object (say, a spaceship). What we would rather do is: When defining spaceships, we would tell the system: "Here's how you @code{draw} a spaceship; you figure out the rest." This is the problem that all systems solve that (rightfully) call themselves object-oriented, and the object-oriented package I present here also solves this problem (and not much else). @node Object-Oriented Terminology, Basic Objects Usage, Why object-oriented programming?, Objects @subsubsection Object-Oriented Terminology @cindex object-oriented terminology @cindex terminology for object-oriented programming This section is mainly for reference, so you don't have to understand all of it right away. The terminology is mainly Smalltalk-inspired. In short: @table @emph @cindex class @item class a data structure definition with some extras. @cindex object @item object an instance of the data structure described by the class definition. @cindex instance variables @item instance variables fields of the data structure. @cindex selector @cindex method selector @cindex virtual function @item selector (or @emph{method selector}) a word (e.g., @code{draw}) for performing an operation on a variety of data structures (classes). A selector describes @emph{what} operation to perform. In C++ terminology: a (pure) virtual function. @cindex method @item method the concrete definition that performs the operation described by the selector for a specific class. A method specifies @emph{how} the operation is performed for a specific class. @cindex selector invocation @cindex message send @cindex invoking a selector @item selector invocation a call of a selector. One argument of the call (the TOS (top-of-stack)) is used for determining which method is used. In Smalltalk terminology: a message (consisting of the selector and the other arguments) is sent to the object. @cindex receiving object @item receiving object the object used for determining the method executed by a selector invocation. In our model it is the object that is on the TOS when the selector is invoked. (@emph{Receiving} comes from Smalltalks @emph{message} terminology.) @cindex child class @cindex parent class @cindex inheritance @item child class a class that has (@emph{inherits}) all properties (instance variables, selectors, methods) from a @emph{parent class}. In Smalltalk terminology: The subclass inherits from the superclass. In C++ terminology: The derived class inherits from the base class. @end table @c If you wonder about the message sending terminology, it comes from @c a time when each object had it's own task and objects communicated via @c message passing; eventually the Smalltalk developers realized that @c they can do most things through simple (indirect) calls. They kept the @c terminology. @node Basic Objects Usage, The class Object, Object-Oriented Terminology, Objects @subsubsection Basic Objects Usage @cindex basic objects usage @cindex objects, basic usage You can define a class for graphical objects like this: @cindex @code{class} usage @cindex @code{end-class} usage @cindex @code{selector} usage @example object class \ "object" is the parent class selector draw ( x y graphical -- ) end-class graphical @end example This code defines a class @code{graphical} with an operation @code{draw}. We can perform the operation @code{draw} on any @code{graphical} object, e.g.: @example 100 100 t-rex draw @end example where @code{t-rex} is a word (say, a constant) that produces a graphical object. @cindex abstract class How do we create a graphical object? With the present definitions, we cannot create a useful graphical object. The class @code{graphical} describes graphical objects in general, but not any concrete graphical object type (C++ users would call it an @emph{abstract class}); e.g., there is no method for the selector @code{draw} in the class @code{graphical}. For concrete graphical objects, we define child classes of the class @code{graphical}, e.g.: @cindex @code{overrides} usage @cindex @code{field} usage in class definition @example graphical class \ "graphical" is the parent class cell% field circle-radius :noname ( x y circle -- ) circle-radius @@ draw-circle ; overrides draw :noname ( n-radius circle -- ) circle-radius ! ; overrides construct end-class circle @end example Here we define a class @code{circle} as a child of @code{graphical}, with a field @code{circle-radius} (which behaves just like a field in @pxref{Structures}); it defines new methods for the selectors @code{draw} and @code{construct} (@code{construct} is defined in @code{object}, the parent class of @code{graphical}). Now we can create a circle on the heap (i.e., @code{allocate}d memory) with @cindex @code{heap-new} usage @example 50 circle heap-new constant my-circle @end example @code{heap-new} invokes @code{construct}, thus initializing the field @code{circle-radius} with 50. We can draw this new circle at (100,100) with @example 100 100 my-circle draw @end example @cindex selector invocation, restrictions @cindex class definition, restrictions Note: You can invoke a selector only if the object on the TOS (the receiving object) belongs to the class where the selector was defined or one of its descendents; e.g., you can invoke @code{draw} only for objects belonging to @code{graphical} or its descendents (e.g., @code{circle}). Immediately before @code{end-class}, the search order has to be the same as immediately after @code{class}. @node The class Object, Creating objects, Basic Objects Usage, Objects @subsubsection The class @code{object} @cindex @code{object} class When you define a class, you have to specify a parent class. So how do you start defining classes? There is one class available from the start: @code{object}. You can use it as ancestor for all classes. It is the only class that has no parent. It has two selectors: @code{construct} and @code{print}. @node Creating objects, Object-Oriented Programming Style, The class Object, Objects @subsubsection Creating objects @cindex creating objects @cindex object creation @cindex object allocation options @cindex @code{heap-new} discussion @cindex @code{dict-new} discussion @cindex @code{construct} discussion You can create and initialize an object of a class on the heap with @code{heap-new} ( ... class -- object ) and in the dictionary (allocation with @code{allot}) with @code{dict-new} ( ... class -- object ). Both words invoke @code{construct}, which consumes the stack items indicated by "..." above. @cindex @code{init-object} discussion @cindex @code{class-inst-size} discussion If you want to allocate memory for an object yourself, you can get its alignment and size with @code{class-inst-size 2@@} ( class -- align size ). Once you have memory for an object, you can initialize it with @code{init-object} ( ... class object -- ); @code{construct} does only a part of the necessary work. @node Object-Oriented Programming Style, Class Binding, Creating objects, Objects @subsubsection Object-Oriented Programming Style @cindex object-oriented programming style This section is not exhaustive. @cindex stack effects of selectors @cindex selectors and stack effects In general, it is a good idea to ensure that all methods for the same selector have the same stack effect: when you invoke a selector, you often have no idea which method will be invoked, so, unless all methods have the same stack effect, you will not know the stack effect of the selector invocation. One exception to this rule is methods for the selector @code{construct}. We know which method is invoked, because we specify the class to be constructed at the same place. Actually, I defined @code{construct} as a selector only to give the users a convenient way to specify initialization. The way it is used, a mechanism different from selector invocation would be more natural (but probably would take more code and more space to explain). @node Class Binding, Method conveniences, Object-Oriented Programming Style, Objects @subsubsection Class Binding @cindex class binding @cindex early binding @cindex late binding Normal selector invocations determine the method at run-time depending on the class of the receiving object (late binding). Sometimes we want to invoke a different method. E.g., assume that you want to use the simple method for @code{print}ing @code{object}s instead of the possibly long-winded @code{print} method of the receiver class. You can achieve this by replacing the invocation of @code{print} with @cindex @code{[bind]} usage @example [bind] object print @end example in compiled code or @cindex @code{bind} usage @example bind object print @end example @cindex class binding, alternative to in interpreted code. Alternatively, you can define the method with a name (e.g., @code{print-object}), and then invoke it through the name. Class binding is just a (often more convenient) way to achieve the same effect; it avoids name clutter and allows you to invoke methods directly without naming them first. @cindex superclass binding @cindex parent class binding A frequent use of class binding is this: When we define a method for a selector, we often want the method to do what the selector does in the parent class, and a little more. There is a special word for this purpose: @code{[parent]}; @code{[parent] @emph{selector}} is equivalent to @code{[bind] @emph{parent selector}}, where @code{@emph{parent}} is the parent class of the current class. E.g., a method definition might look like: @cindex @code{[parent]} usage @example :noname dup [parent] foo \ do parent's foo on the receiving object ... \ do some more ; overrides foo @end example @cindex class binding as optimization In @cite{Object-oriented programming in ANS Forth} (Forth Dimensions, March 1997), Andrew McKewan presents class binding as an optimization technique. I recommend not using it for this purpose unless you are in an emergency. Late binding is pretty fast with this model anyway, so the benefit of using class binding is small; the cost of using class binding where it is not appropriate is reduced maintainability. While we are at programming style questions: You should bind selectors only to ancestor classes of the receiving object. E.g., say, you know that the receiving object is of class @code{foo} or its descendents; then you should bind only to @code{foo} and its ancestors. @node Method conveniences, Classes and Scoping, Class Binding, Objects @subsubsection Method conveniences @cindex method conveniences In a method you usually access the receiving object pretty often. If you define the method as a plain colon definition (e.g., with @code{:noname}), you may have to do a lot of stack gymnastics. To avoid this, you can define the method with @code{m: ... ;m}. E.g., you could define the method for @code{draw}ing a @code{circle} with @cindex @code{this} usage @cindex @code{m:} usage @cindex @code{;m} usage @example m: ( x y circle -- ) ( x y ) this circle-radius @@ draw-circle ;m @end example @cindex @code{exit} in @code{m: ... ;m} @cindex @code{exitm} discussion @cindex @code{catch} in @code{m: ... ;m} When this method is executed, the receiver object is removed from the stack; you can access it with @code{this} (admittedly, in this example the use of @code{m: ... ;m} offers no advantage). Note that I specify the stack effect for the whole method (i.e. including the receiver object), not just for the code between @code{m:} and @code{;m}. You cannot use @code{exit} in @code{m:...;m}; instead, use @code{exitm}.@footnote{Moreover, for any word that calls @code{catch} and was defined before loading @code{objects.fs}, you have to redefine it like I redefined @code{catch}: @code{: catch this >r catch r> to-this ;}} @cindex @code{inst-var} usage You will frequently use sequences of the form @code{this @emph{field}} (in the example above: @code{this circle-radius}). If you use the field only in this way, you can define it with @code{inst-var} and eliminate the @code{this} before the field name. E.g., the @code{circle} class above could also be defined with: @example graphical class cell% inst-var radius m: ( x y circle -- ) radius @@ draw-circle ;m overrides draw m: ( n-radius circle -- ) radius ! ;m overrides construct end-class circle @end example @code{radius} can only be used in @code{circle} and its descendent classes and inside @code{m:...;m}. @cindex @code{inst-value} usage You can also define fields with @code{inst-value}, which is to @code{inst-var} what @code{value} is to @code{variable}. You can change the value of such a field with @code{[to-inst]}. E.g., we could also define the class @code{circle} like this: @example graphical class inst-value radius m: ( x y circle -- ) radius draw-circle ;m overrides draw m: ( n-radius circle -- ) [to-inst] radius ;m overrides construct end-class circle @end example @node Classes and Scoping, Object Interfaces, Method conveniences, Objects @subsubsection Classes and Scoping @cindex classes and scoping @cindex scoping and classes Inheritance is frequent, unlike structure extension. This exacerbates the problem with the field name convention (@pxref{Structure Naming Convention}): One always has to remember in which class the field was originally defined; changing a part of the class structure would require changes for renaming in otherwise unaffected code. @cindex @code{inst-var} visibility @cindex @code{inst-value} visibility To solve this problem, I added a scoping mechanism (which was not in my original charter): A field defined with @code{inst-var} (or @code{inst-value}) is visible only in the class where it is defined and in the descendent classes of this class. Using such fields only makes sense in @code{m:}-defined methods in these classes anyway. This scoping mechanism allows us to use the unadorned field name, because name clashes with unrelated words become much less likely. @cindex @code{protected} discussion @cindex @code{private} discussion Once we have this mechanism, we can also use it for controlling the visibility of other words: All words defined after @code{protected} are visible only in the current class and its descendents. @code{public} restores the compilation (i.e. @code{current}) wordlist that was in effect before. If you have several @code{protected}s without an intervening @code{public} or @code{set-current}, @code{public} will restore the compilation wordlist in effect before the first of these @code{protected}s. @node Object Interfaces, Objects Implementation, Classes and Scoping, Objects @subsubsection Object Interfaces @cindex object interfaces @cindex interfaces for objects In this model you can only call selectors defined in the class of the receiving objects or in one of its ancestors. If you call a selector with a receiving object that is not in one of these classes, the result is undefined; if you are lucky, the program crashes immediately. @cindex selectors common to hardly-related classes Now consider the case when you want to have a selector (or several) available in two classes: You would have to add the selector to a common ancestor class, in the worst case to @code{object}. You may not want to do this, e.g., because someone else is responsible for this ancestor class. The solution for this problem is interfaces. An interface is a collection of selectors. If a class implements an interface, the selectors become available to the class and its descendents. A class can implement an unlimited number of interfaces. For the problem discussed above, we would define an interface for the selector(s), and both classes would implement the interface. As an example, consider an interface @code{storage} for writing objects to disk and getting them back, and a class @code{foo} foo that implements it. The code for this would look like this: @cindex @code{interface} usage @cindex @code{end-interface} usage @cindex @code{implementation} usage @example interface selector write ( file object -- ) selector read1 ( file object -- ) end-interface storage bar class storage implementation ... overrides write ... overrides read ... end-class foo @end example (I would add a word @code{read} ( file -- object ) that uses @code{read1} internally, but that's beyond the point illustrated here.) Note that you cannot use @code{protected} in an interface; and of course you cannot define fields. In the Neon model, all selectors are available for all classes; therefore it does not need interfaces. The price you pay in this model is slower late binding, and therefore, added complexity to avoid late binding. @node Objects Implementation, Comparison with other object models, Object Interfaces, Objects @subsubsection @file{objects.fs} Implementation @cindex @file{objects.fs} implementation @cindex @code{object-map} discussion An object is a piece of memory, like one of the data structures described with @code{struct...end-struct}. It has a field @code{object-map} that points to the method map for the object's class. @cindex method map @cindex virtual function table The @emph{method map}@footnote{This is Self terminology; in C++ terminology: virtual function table.} is an array that contains the execution tokens (XTs) of the methods for the object's class. Each selector contains an offset into the method maps. @cindex @code{selector} implementation, class @code{selector} is a defining word that uses @code{create} and @code{does>}. The body of the selector contains the offset; the @code{does>} action for a class selector is, basically: @example ( object addr ) @@ over object-map @@ + @@ execute @end example Since @code{object-map} is the first field of the object, it does not generate any code. As you can see, calling a selector has a small, constant cost. @cindex @code{current-interface} discussion @cindex class implementation and representation A class is basically a @code{struct} combined with a method map. During the class definition the alignment and size of the class are passed on the stack, just as with @code{struct}s, so @code{field} can also be used for defining class fields. However, passing more items on the stack would be inconvenient, so @code{class} builds a data structure in memory, which is accessed through the variable @code{current-interface}. After its definition is complete, the class is represented on the stack by a pointer (e.g., as parameter for a child class definition). At the start, a new class has the alignment and size of its parent, and a copy of the parent's method map. Defining new fields extends the size and alignment; likewise, defining new selectors extends the method map. @code{overrides} just stores a new XT in the method map at the offset given by the selector. @cindex class binding, implementation Class binding just gets the XT at the offset given by the selector from the class's method map and @code{compile,}s (in the case of @code{[bind]}) it. @cindex @code{this} implementation @cindex @code{catch} and @code{this} @cindex @code{this} and @code{catch} I implemented @code{this} as a @code{value}. At the start of an @code{m:...;m} method the old @code{this} is stored to the return stack and restored at the end; and the object on the TOS is stored @code{TO this}. This technique has one disadvantage: If the user does not leave the method via @code{;m}, but via @code{throw} or @code{exit}, @code{this} is not restored (and @code{exit} may crash). To deal with the @code{throw} problem, I have redefined @code{catch} to save and restore @code{this}; the same should be done with any word that can catch an exception. As for @code{exit}, I simply forbid it (as a replacement, there is @code{exitm}). @cindex @code{inst-var} implementation @code{inst-var} is just the same as @code{field}, with a different @code{does>} action: @example @@ this + @end example Similar for @code{inst-value}. @cindex class scoping implementation Each class also has a wordlist that contains the words defined with @code{inst-var} and @code{inst-value}, and its protected words. It also has a pointer to its parent. @code{class} pushes the wordlists of the class an all its ancestors on the search order, and @code{end-class} drops them. @cindex interface implementation An interface is like a class without fields, parent and protected words; i.e., it just has a method map. If a class implements an interface, its method map contains a pointer to the method map of the interface. The positive offsets in the map are reserved for class methods, therefore interface map pointers have negative offsets. Interfaces have offsets that are unique throughout the system, unlike class selectors, whose offsets are only unique for the classes where the selector is available (invokable). This structure means that interface selectors have to perform one indirection more than class selectors to find their method. Their body contains the interface map pointer offset in the class method map, and the method offset in the interface method map. The @code{does>} action for an interface selector is, basically: @example ( object selector-body ) 2dup selector-interface @@ ( object selector-body object interface-offset ) swap object-map @@ + @@ ( object selector-body map ) swap selector-offset @@ + @@ execute @end example where @code{object-map} and @code{selector-offset} are first fields and generate no code. As a concrete example, consider the following code: @example interface selector if1sel1 selector if1sel2 end-interface if1 object class if1 implementation selector cl1sel1 cell% inst-var cl1iv1 ' m1 overrides construct ' m2 overrides if1sel1 ' m3 overrides if1sel2 ' m4 overrides cl1sel2 end-class cl1 create obj1 object dict-new drop create obj2 cl1 dict-new drop @end example The data structure created by this code (including the data structure for @code{object}) is shown in the figure, assuming a cell size of 4. @node Comparison with other object models, Objects Glossary, Objects Implementation, Objects @subsubsection Comparison with other object models @cindex comparison of object models @cindex object models, comparison Many object-oriented Forth extensions have been proposed (@cite{A survey of object-oriented Forths} (SIGPLAN Notices, April 1996) by Bradford J. Rodriguez and W. F. S. Poehlman lists 17). Here I'll discuss the relation of @file{objects.fs} to two well-known and two closely-related (by the use of method maps) models. @cindex Neon model The most popular model currently seems to be the Neon model (see @cite{Object-oriented programming in ANS Forth} (Forth Dimensions, March 1997) by Andrew McKewan). The Neon model uses a @code{@emph{selector object}} syntax, which makes it unnatural to pass objects on the stack. It also requires that the selector parses the input stream (at compile time); this leads to reduced extensibility and to bugs that are hard to find. Finally, it allows using every selector to every object; this eliminates the need for classes, but makes it harder to create efficient implementations. A longer version of this critique can be found in @cite{On Standardizing Object-Oriented Forth Extensions} (Forth Dimensions, May 1997) by Anton Ertl. @cindex Pountain's object-oriented model Another well-known publication is @cite{Object-Oriented Forth} (Academic Press, London, 1987) by Dick Pountain. However, it is not really about object-oriented programming, because it hardly deals with late binding. Instead, it focuses on features like information hiding and overloading that are characteristic of modular languages like Ada (83). @cindex Zsoter's object-oriented model In @cite{Does late binding have to be slow?} (Forth Dimensions ??? 1996) Andras Zsoter describes a model that makes heavy use of an active object (like @code{this} in @file{objects.fs}): The active object is not only used for accessing all fields, but also specifies the receiving object of every selector invocation; you have to change the active object explicitly with @code{@{ ... @}}, whereas in @file{objects.fs} it changes more or less implicitly at @code{m: ... ;m}. Such a change at the method entry point is unnecessary with the Zsoter's model, because the receiving object is the active object already; OTOH, the explicit change is absolutely necessary in that model, because otherwise no one could ever change the active object. An ANS Forth implementation of this model is available at @url{http://www.forth.org/fig/oopf.html}. @cindex @file{oof.fs}, differences to other models The @file{oof.fs} model combines information hiding and overloading resolution (by keeping names in various wordlists) with object-oriented programming. It sets the active object implicitly on method entry, but also allows explicit changing (with @code{>o...o>} or with @code{with...endwith}). It uses parsing and state-smart objects and classes for resolving overloading and for early binding: the object or class parses the selector and determines the method from this. If the selector is not parsed by an object or class, it performs a call to the selector for the active object (late binding), like Zsoter's model. Fields are always accessed through the active object. The big disadvantage of this model is the parsing and the state-smartness, which reduces extensibility and increases the opportunities for subtle bugs; essentially, you are only safe if you never tick or @code{postpone} an object or class (Bernd disagrees, but I (Anton) am not convinced). @cindex @file{mini-oof.fs}, differences to other models The Mini-OOF model is quite similar to a very stripped-down version of the Objects model, but syntactically it is a mixture of the Objects and the OOF model. @node Objects Glossary, , Comparison with other object models, Objects @subsubsection @file{objects.fs} Glossary @cindex @file{objects.fs} Glossary doc-bind doc- doc-bind' doc-[bind] doc-class doc-class->map doc-class-inst-size doc-class-override! doc-construct doc-current' doc-[current] doc-current-interface doc-dict-new doc-drop-order doc-end-class doc-end-class-noname doc-end-interface doc-end-interface-noname doc-exitm doc-heap-new doc-implementation doc-init-object doc-inst-value doc-inst-var doc-interface doc-;m doc-m: doc-method doc-object doc-overrides doc-[parent] doc-print doc-protected doc-public doc-push-order doc-selector doc-this doc- doc-[to-inst] doc-to-this doc-xt-new @c ------------------------------------------------------------- @node OOF, Mini-OOF, Objects, Object-oriented Forth @subsection OOF @cindex oof @cindex object-oriented programming @cindex @file{objects.fs} @cindex @file{oof.fs} This section describes the @file{oof.fs} packet. This section uses the same rationale why using object-oriented programming, and the same terminology. The packet described in this section is used in bigFORTH since 1991, and used for two large applications: a chromatographic system used to create new medicaments, and a graphic user interface library (MINOS). You can find a description (in German) of @file{oof.fs} in @cite{Object oriented bigFORTH} by Bernd Paysan, published in @cite{Vierte Dimension} 10(2), 1994. @menu * Properties of the OOF model:: * Basic OOF Usage:: * The base class object:: * Class Declaration:: * Class Implementation:: @end menu @node Properties of the OOF model, Basic OOF Usage, OOF, OOF @subsubsection Properties of the OOF model @cindex @file{oof.fs} properties @itemize @bullet @item This model combines object oriented programming with information hiding. It helps you writing large application, where scoping is necessary, because it provides class-oriented scoping. @item Named objects, object pointers, and object arrays can be created, selector invocation uses the "object selector" syntax. Selector invocation to objects and/or selectors on the stack is a bit less convenient, but possible. @item Selector invocation and instance variable usage of the active object is straight forward, since both make use of the active object. @item Late binding is efficient and easy to use. @item State-smart objects parse selectors. However, extensibility is provided using a (parsing) selector @code{postpone} and a selector @code{'}. @item An implementation in ANS Forth is available. @end itemize @node Basic OOF Usage, The base class object, Properties of the OOF model, OOF @subsubsection Basic OOF Usage @cindex @file{oof.fs} usage Here, I use the same example as for @code{objects} (@pxref{Basic Objects Usage}). You can define a class for graphical objects like this: @cindex @code{class} usage @cindex @code{class;} usage @cindex @code{method} usage @example object class graphical \ "object" is the parent class method draw ( x y graphical -- ) class; @end example This code defines a class @code{graphical} with an operation @code{draw}. We can perform the operation @code{draw} on any @code{graphical} object, e.g.: @example 100 100 t-rex draw @end example where @code{t-rex} is an object or object pointer, created with e.g. @code{graphical : t-rex}. @cindex abstract class How do we create a graphical object? With the present definitions, we cannot create a useful graphical object. The class @code{graphical} describes graphical objects in general, but not any concrete graphical object type (C++ users would call it an @emph{abstract class}); e.g., there is no method for the selector @code{draw} in the class @code{graphical}. For concrete graphical objects, we define child classes of the class @code{graphical}, e.g.: @example graphical class circle \ "graphical" is the parent class cell var circle-radius how: : draw ( x y -- ) circle-radius @@ draw-circle ; : init ( n-radius -- ( circle-radius ! ; class; @end example Here we define a class @code{circle} as a child of @code{graphical}, with a field @code{circle-radius}; it defines new methods for the selectors @code{draw} and @code{init} (@code{init} is defined in @code{object}, the parent class of @code{graphical}). Now we can create a circle in the dictionary with @example 50 circle : my-circle @end example @code{:} invokes @code{init}, thus initializing the field @code{circle-radius} with 50. We can draw this new circle at (100,100) with @example 100 100 my-circle draw @end example @cindex selector invocation, restrictions @cindex class definition, restrictions Note: You can invoke a selector only if the receiving object belongs to the class where the selector was defined or one of its descendents; e.g., you can invoke @code{draw} only for objects belonging to @code{graphical} or its descendents (e.g., @code{circle}). The scoping mechanism will check if you try to invoke a selector that is not defined in this class hierarchy, so you'll get an error at compilation time. @node The base class object, Class Declaration, Basic OOF Usage, OOF @subsubsection The base class @file{object} @cindex @file{oof.fs} base class When you define a class, you have to specify a parent class. So how do you start defining classes? There is one class available from the start: @code{object}. You have to use it as ancestor for all classes. It is the only class that has no parent. Classes are also objects, except that they don't have instance variables; class manipulation such as inheritance or changing definitions of a class is handled through selectors of the class @code{object}. @code{object} provides a number of selectors: @itemize @bullet @item @code{class} for subclassing, @code{definitions} to add definitions later on, and @code{class?} to get type informations (is the class a subclass of the class passed on the stack?). doc---object-class doc---object-definitions doc---object-class? @item @code{init} and @code{dispose} as constructor and destroctor of the object. @code{init} is invocated after the object's memory is allocated, while @code{dispose} also handles deallocation. Thus if you redefine @code{dispose}, you have to call the parent's dispose with @code{super dispose}, too. doc---object-init doc---object-dispose @item @code{new}, @code{new[]}, @code{:}, @code{ptr}, @code{asptr}, and @code{[]} to create named and unnamed objects and object arrays or object pointers. doc---object-new doc---object-new[] doc---object-: doc---object-ptr doc---object-asptr doc---object-[] @item @code{::} and @code{super} for expicit scoping. You should use expicit scoping only for super classes or classes with the same set of instance variables. Explicit scoped selectors use early binding. doc---object-:: doc---object-super @item @code{self} to get the address of the object doc---object-self @item @code{bind}, @code{bound}, @code{link}, and @code{is} to assign object pointers and instance defers. doc---object-bind doc---object-bound doc---object-link doc---object-is @item @code{'} to obtain selector tokens, @code{send} to invocate selectors form the stack, and @code{postpone} to generate selector invocation code. doc---object-' doc---object-postpone @item @code{with} and @code{endwith} to select the active object from the stack, and enabling it's scope. Using @code{with} and @code{endwith} also allows to create code using selector @code{postpone} without being trapped bye the state-smart objects. doc---object-with doc---object-endwith @end itemize @node Class Declaration, Class Implementation, The base class object, OOF @subsubsection Class Declaration @cindex class declaration @itemize @bullet @item Instance variables doc---oof-var @item Object pointers doc---oof-ptr doc---oof-asptr @item Instance defers doc---oof-defer @item Method selectors doc---oof-early doc---oof-method @item Class wide variables doc---oof-static @item End declaration doc---oof-how: doc---oof-class; @end itemize @c ------------------------------------------------------------- @node Class Implementation, , Class Declaration, OOF @subsubsection Class Implementation @cindex class implementation @c ------------------------------------------------------------- @node Mini-OOF, , OOF, Object-oriented Forth @subsection Mini-OOF @cindex mini-oof Gforth's third object oriented Forth package is a 12-liner. It uses a bit of a mixture of the @file{object.fs} and the @file{oof.fs} syntax, and reduces to the bare minimum of features. This is based on a posting of Bernd Paysan in comp.arch. @menu * Mini-OOF Usage:: * Mini-OOF Example:: @end menu @c ------------------------------------------------------------- @node Mini-OOF Usage, Mini-OOF Example, , Mini-OOF @subsubsection Usage @cindex mini-oof usage Basically, there are seven words, to define a method, a variable, a class; to end a class, to define a method, to allocate an object, to resolve binding, and the base class (which allocates one cell for the object pointer). doc-method Defines a method doc-var Defines a variable with size bytes doc-class Starts the definition of a sub-class doc-end-class Ends the definition of a class doc-defines Binds the xt to the method name in the class doc-new Creates a new incarnation of the class doc-:: Compiles the method name of the class (not immediate!) doc-object Is the base class of all objects @c ------------------------------------------------------------- @node Mini-OOF Example, , Mini-OOF Usage, Mini-OOF @subsubsection Mini-OOF Example @cindex mini-oof example A short example shows how to use this package. @example object class method init method draw end-class graphical @end example This code defines a class @code{graphical} with an operation @code{draw}. We can perform the operation @code{draw} on any @code{graphical} object, e.g.: @example 100 100 t-rex draw @end example where @code{t-rex} is an object or object pointer, created with e.g. @code{graphical new Constant t-rex}. For concrete graphical objects, we define child classes of the class @code{graphical}, e.g.: @example graphical class cell var circle-radius end-class circle \ "graphical" is the parent class :noname ( x y -- ) circle-radius @@ draw-circle ; circle defines draw :noname ( r -- ) circle-radius ! ; circle defines init @end example There is no implicit init method, so we have to define one. The creation code of the object now has to call init explicitely. @example circle new Constant my-circle 50 my-circle init @end example It is also possible to add a function to create named objects with automatic call of @code{init}, given that all objects have @code{init} on the same place @example : new: ( .. o "name" -- ) new dup Constant init ; 80 circle new: large-circle @end example We can draw this new circle at (100,100) with @example 100 100 my-circle draw @end example @c ------------------------------------------------------------- @node Tokens for Words, Wordlists, Object-oriented Forth, Words @section Tokens for Words @cindex tokens for words This chapter describes the creation and use of tokens that represent words on the stack (and in data space). Named words have interpretation and compilation semantics. Unnamed words just have execution semantics. @cindex execution token An @dfn{execution token} represents the execution semantics of an unnamed word. An execution token occupies one cell. As explained in section @ref{Supplying names}, the execution token of the last words defined can be produced with short-lastxt You can perform the semantics represented by an execution token with doc-execute You can compile the word with doc-compile, @cindex code field address @cindex CFA In Gforth, the abstract data type @emph{execution token} is implemented as CFA (code field address). The interpretation semantics of a named word are also represented by an execution token. You can get it with doc-['] doc-' For literals, you use @code{'} in interpreted code and @code{[']} in compiled code. Gforth's @code{'} and @code{[']} behave somewhat unusual by complaining about compile-only words. To get an execution token for a compiling word @var{X}, use @code{COMP' @var{X} drop} or @code{[COMP'] @var{X} drop}. @cindex compilation token The compilation semantics are represented by a @dfn{compilation token} consisting of two cells: @var{w xt}. The top cell @var{xt} is an execution token. The compilation semantics represented by the compilation token can be performed with @code{execute}, which consumes the whole compilation token, with an additional stack effect determined by the represented compilation semantics. doc-[comp'] doc-comp' You can compile the compilation semantics with @code{postpone,}. I.e., @code{COMP' @var{word} POSTPONE,} is equivalent to @code{POSTPONE @var{word}}. doc-postpone, At present, the @var{w} part of a compilation token is an execution token, and the @var{xt} part represents either @code{execute} or @code{compile,}. However, don't rely on that knowledge, unless necessary; we may introduce unusual compilation tokens in the future (e.g., compilation tokens representing the compilation semantics of literals). @cindex name token @cindex name field address @cindex NFA Named words are also represented by the @dfn{name token}. The abstract data type @emph{name token} is implemented as NFA (name field address). doc-find-name doc-name>int doc-name?int doc-name>comp doc-name>string @node Wordlists, Files, Tokens for Words, Words @section Wordlists @node Files, Including Files, Wordlists, Words @section Files @node Including Files, Blocks, Files, Words @section Including Files @cindex including files @menu * Words for Including:: * Search Path:: * Changing the Search Path:: * General Search Paths:: @end menu @node Words for Including, Search Path, Including Files, Including Files @subsection Words for Including doc-include-file doc-included doc-include Usually you want to include a file only if it is not included already (by, say, another source file): doc-required doc-require doc-needs @cindex stack effect of included files @cindex including files, stack effect I recommend that you write your source files such that interpreting them does not change the stack. This allows using these files with @code{required} and friends without complications. E.g., @example 1 require foo.fs drop @end example @node Search Path, Changing the Search Path, Words for Including, Including Files @subsection Search Path @cindex path for @code{included} @cindex file search path @cindex include search path @cindex search path for files If you specify an absolute filename (i.e., a filename starting with @file{/} or @file{~}, or with @file{:} in the second position (as in @samp{C:...})) for @code{included} and friends, that file is included just as you would expect. For relative filenames, Gforth uses a search path similar to Forth's search order (@pxref{Wordlists}). It tries to find the given filename in the directories present in the path, and includes the first one it finds. If the search path contains the directory @file{.} (as it should), this refers to the directory that the present file was @code{included} from. This allows files to include other files relative to their own position (irrespective of the current working directory or the absolute position). This feature is essential for libraries consisting of several files, where a file may include other files from the library. It corresponds to @code{#include "..."} in C. If the current input source is not a file, @file{.} refers to the directory of the innermost file being included, or, if there is no file being included, to the current working directory. Use @file{~+} to refer to the current working directory (as in the @code{bash}). If the filename starts with @file{./}, the search path is not searched (just as with absolute filenames), and the @file{.} has the same meaning as described above. @node Changing the Search Path, General Search Paths, Search Path, Including Files @subsection Changing the Search Path @cindex search path, changes The search path is initialized when you start Gforth (@pxref{Invoking Gforth}). You can display it with doc-.fpath You can change it later with the following words: doc-fpath+ doc-fpath= Using fpath and require would look like: @example fpath= /usr/lib/forth/|./ require timer.fs @end example If you have the need to look for a file in the Forth search path, you could use this Gforth feature in your application. doc-open-fpath-file @node General Search Paths, , Changing the Search Path, Including Files @subsection General Search Paths @cindex search paths for user applications Your application may need to search files in sevaral directories, like @code{included} does. For this purpose you can define and use your own search paths. Create a search path like this: @example Make a buffer for the path: create mypath 100 chars , \ maximum length (is checked) 0 , \ real len 100 chars allot \ space for path @end example You have the same functions for the forth search path in a generic version for different paths. doc-path+ doc-path= doc-.path doc-open-path-file @node Blocks, Other I/O, Including Files, Words @section Blocks @node Other I/O, Programming Tools, Blocks, Words @section Other I/O @node Programming Tools, Assembler and Code Words, Other I/O, Words @section Programming Tools @cindex programming tools @menu * Debugging:: Simple and quick. * Assertions:: Making your programs self-checking. * Singlestep Debugger:: Executing your program word by word. @end menu @node Debugging, Assertions, Programming Tools, Programming Tools @subsection Debugging @cindex debugging The simple debugging aids provided in @file{debugs.fs} are meant to support a different style of debugging than the tracing/stepping debuggers used in languages with long turn-around times. A much better (faster) way in fast-compiling languages is to add printing code at well-selected places, let the program run, look at the output, see where things went wrong, add more printing code, etc., until the bug is found. The word @code{~~} is easy to insert. It just prints debugging information (by default the source location and the stack contents). It is also easy to remove (@kbd{C-x ~} in the Emacs Forth mode to query-replace them with nothing). The deferred words @code{printdebugdata} and @code{printdebugline} control the output of @code{~~}. The default source location output format works well with Emacs' compilation mode, so you can step through the program at the source level using @kbd{C-x `} (the advantage over a stepping debugger is that you can step in any direction and you know where the crash has happened or where the strange data has occurred). Note that the default actions clobber the contents of the pictured numeric output string, so you should not use @code{~~}, e.g., between @code{<#} and @code{#>}. doc-~~ doc-printdebugdata doc-printdebugline @node Assertions, Singlestep Debugger, Debugging, Programming Tools @subsection Assertions @cindex assertions It is a good idea to make your programs self-checking, in particular, if you use an assumption (e.g., that a certain field of a data structure is never zero) that may become wrong during maintenance. Gforth supports assertions for this purpose. They are used like this: @example assert( @var{flag} ) @end example The code between @code{assert(} and @code{)} should compute a flag, that should be true if everything is alright and false otherwise. It should not change anything else on the stack. The overall stack effect of the assertion is @code{( -- )}. E.g. @example assert( 1 1 + 2 = ) \ what we learn in school assert( dup 0<> ) \ assert that the top of stack is not zero assert( false ) \ this code should not be reached @end example The need for assertions is different at different times. During debugging, we want more checking, in production we sometimes care more for speed. Therefore, assertions can be turned off, i.e., the assertion becomes a comment. Depending on the importance of an assertion and the time it takes to check it, you may want to turn off some assertions and keep others turned on. Gforth provides several levels of assertions for this purpose: doc-assert0( doc-assert1( doc-assert2( doc-assert3( doc-assert( doc-) @code{Assert(} is the same as @code{assert1(}. The variable @code{assert-level} specifies the highest assertions that are turned on. I.e., at the default @code{assert-level} of one, @code{assert0(} and @code{assert1(} assertions perform checking, while @code{assert2(} and @code{assert3(} assertions are treated as comments. Note that the @code{assert-level} is evaluated at compile-time, not at run-time. I.e., you cannot turn assertions on or off at run-time, you have to set the @code{assert-level} appropriately before compiling a piece of code. You can compile several pieces of code at several @code{assert-level}s (e.g., a trusted library at level 1 and newly written code at level 3). doc-assert-level If an assertion fails, a message compatible with Emacs' compilation mode is produced and the execution is aborted (currently with @code{ABORT"}. If there is interest, we will introduce a special throw code. But if you intend to @code{catch} a specific condition, using @code{throw} is probably more appropriate than an assertion). @node Singlestep Debugger, , Assertions, Programming Tools @subsection Singlestep Debugger @cindex singlestep Debugger @cindex debugging Singlestep @cindex @code{dbg} @cindex @code{BREAK:} @cindex @code{BREAK"} When a new word is created there's often the need to check whether it behaves correctly or not. You can do this by typing @code{dbg badword}. This might look like: @example : badword 0 DO i . LOOP ; ok 2 dbg badword : badword Scanning code... Nesting debugger ready! 400D4738 8049BC4 0 -> [ 2 ] 00002 00000 400D4740 8049F68 DO -> [ 0 ] 400D4744 804A0C8 i -> [ 1 ] 00000 400D4748 400C5E60 . -> 0 [ 0 ] 400D474C 8049D0C LOOP -> [ 0 ] 400D4744 804A0C8 i -> [ 1 ] 00001 400D4748 400C5E60 . -> 1 [ 0 ] 400D474C 8049D0C LOOP -> [ 0 ] 400D4758 804B384 ; -> ok @end example Each line displayed is one step. You always have to hit return to execute the next word that is displayed. If you don't want to execute the next word in a whole, you have to type @kbd{n} for @code{nest}. Here is an overview what keys are available: @table @i @item Next; Execute the next word. @item n Nest; Single step through next word. @item u Unnest; Stop debugging and execute rest of word. If we got to this word with nest, continue debugging with the calling word. @item d Done; Stop debugging and execute rest. @item s Stopp; Abort immediately. @end table Debugging large application with this mechanism is very difficult, because you have to nest very deep into the program before the interesting part begins. This takes a lot of time. To do it more directly put a @code{BREAK:} command into your source code. When program execution reaches @code{BREAK:} the single step debugger is invoked and you have all the features described above. If you have more than one part to debug it is useful to know where the program has stopped at the moment. You can do this by the @code{BREAK" string"} command. This behaves like @code{BREAK:} except that string is typed out when the ``breakpoint'' is reached. @node Assembler and Code Words, Threading Words, Programming Tools, Words @section Assembler and Code Words @cindex assembler @cindex code words Gforth provides some words for defining primitives (words written in machine code), and for defining the the machine-code equivalent of @code{DOES>}-based defining words. However, the machine-independent nature of Gforth poses a few problems: First of all, Gforth runs on several architectures, so it can provide no standard assembler. What's worse is that the register allocation not only depends on the processor, but also on the @code{gcc} version and options used. The words that Gforth offers encapsulate some system dependences (e.g., the header structure), so a system-independent assembler may be used in Gforth. If you do not have an assembler, you can compile machine code directly with @code{,} and @code{c,}. doc-assembler doc-code doc-end-code doc-;code doc-flush-icache If @code{flush-icache} does not work correctly, @code{code} words etc. will not work (reliably), either. These words are rarely used. Therefore they reside in @code{code.fs}, which is usually not loaded (except @code{flush-icache}, which is always present). You can load them with @code{require code.fs}. @cindex registers of the inner interpreter In the assembly code you will want to refer to the inner interpreter's registers (e.g., the data stack pointer) and you may want to use other registers for temporary storage. Unfortunately, the register allocation is installation-dependent. The easiest solution is to use explicit register declarations (@pxref{Explicit Reg Vars, , Variables in Specified Registers, gcc.info, GNU C Manual}) for all of the inner interpreter's registers: You have to compile Gforth with @code{-DFORCE_REG} (configure option @code{--enable-force-reg}) and the appropriate declarations must be present in the @code{machine.h} file (see @code{mips.h} for an example; you can find a full list of all declarable register symbols with @code{grep register engine.c}). If you give explicit registers to all variables that are declared at the beginning of @code{engine()}, you should be able to use the other caller-saved registers for temporary storage. Alternatively, you can use the @code{gcc} option @code{-ffixed-REG} (@pxref{Code Gen Options, , Options for Code Generation Conventions, gcc.info, GNU C Manual}) to reserve a register (however, this restriction on register allocation may slow Gforth significantly). If this solution is not viable (e.g., because @code{gcc} does not allow you to explicitly declare all the registers you need), you have to find out by looking at the code where the inner interpreter's registers reside and which registers can be used for temporary storage. You can get an assembly listing of the engine's code with @code{make engine.s}. In any case, it is good practice to abstract your assembly code from the actual register allocation. E.g., if the data stack pointer resides in register @code{$17}, create an alias for this register called @code{sp}, and use that in your assembly code. @cindex code words, portable Another option for implementing normal and defining words efficiently is: adding the wanted functionality to the source of Gforth. For normal words you just have to edit @file{primitives} (@pxref{Automatic Generation}), defining words (equivalent to @code{;CODE} words, for fast defined words) may require changes in @file{engine.c}, @file{kernal.fs}, @file{prims2x.fs}, and possibly @file{cross.fs}. @node Threading Words, , Assembler and Code Words, Words @section Threading Words @cindex threading words @cindex code address These words provide access to code addresses and other threading stuff in Gforth (and, possibly, other interpretive Forths). It more or less abstracts away the differences between direct and indirect threading (and, for direct threading, the machine dependences). However, at present this wordset is still incomplete. It is also pretty low-level; some day it will hopefully be made unnecessary by an internals wordset that abstracts implementation details away completely. doc->code-address doc->does-code doc-code-address! doc-does-code! doc-does-handler! doc-/does-handler The code addresses produced by various defining words are produced by the following words: doc-docol: doc-docon: doc-dovar: doc-douser: doc-dodefer: doc-dofield: You can recognize words defined by a @code{CREATE}...@code{DOES>} word with @code{>DOES-CODE}. If the word was defined in that way, the value returned is different from 0 and identifies the @code{DOES>} used by the defining word. @c ****************************************************************** @node Tools, ANS conformance, Words, Top @chapter Tools @menu * ANS Report:: Report the words used, sorted by wordset. @end menu See also @ref{Emacs and Gforth}. @node ANS Report, , Tools, Tools @section @file{ans-report.fs}: Report the words used, sorted by wordset @cindex @file{ans-report.fs} @cindex report the words used in your program @cindex words used in your program If you want to label a Forth program as ANS Forth Program, you must document which wordsets the program uses; for extension wordsets, it is helpful to list the words the program requires from these wordsets (because Forth systems are allowed to provide only some words of them). The @file{ans-report.fs} tool makes it easy for you to determine which words from which wordset and which non-ANS words your application uses. You simply have to include @file{ans-report.fs} before loading the program you want to check. After loading your program, you can get the report with @code{print-ans-report}. A typical use is to run this as batch job like this: @example gforth ans-report.fs myprog.fs -e "print-ans-report bye" @end example The output looks like this (for @file{compat/control.fs}): @example The program uses the following words from CORE : : POSTPONE THEN ; immediate ?dup IF 0= from BLOCK-EXT : \ from FILE : ( @end example @subsection Caveats Note that @file{ans-report.fs} just checks which words are used, not whether they are used in an ANS Forth conforming way! Some words are defined in several wordsets in the standard. @file{ans-report.fs} reports them for only one of the wordsets, and not necessarily the one you expect. It depends on usage which wordset is the right one to specify. E.g., if you only use the compilation semantics of @code{S"}, it is a Core word; if you also use its interpretation semantics, it is a File word. @c ****************************************************************** @node ANS conformance, Model, Tools, Top @chapter ANS conformance @cindex ANS conformance of Gforth To the best of our knowledge, Gforth is an ANS Forth System @itemize @bullet @item providing the Core Extensions word set @item providing the Block word set @item providing the Block Extensions word set @item providing the Double-Number word set @item providing the Double-Number Extensions word set @item providing the Exception word set @item providing the Exception Extensions word set @item providing the Facility word set @item providing @code{MS} and @code{TIME&DATE} from the Facility Extensions word set @item providing the File Access word set @item providing the File Access Extensions word set @item providing the Floating-Point word set @item providing the Floating-Point Extensions word set @item providing the Locals word set @item providing the Locals Extensions word set @item providing the Memory-Allocation word set @item providing the Memory-Allocation Extensions word set (that one's easy) @item providing the Programming-Tools word set @item providing @code{;CODE}, @code{AHEAD}, @code{ASSEMBLER}, @code{BYE}, @code{CODE}, @code{CS-PICK}, @code{CS-ROLL}, @code{STATE}, @code{[ELSE]}, @code{[IF]}, @code{[THEN]} from the Programming-Tools Extensions word set @item providing the Search-Order word set @item providing the Search-Order Extensions word set @item providing the String word set @item providing the String Extensions word set (another easy one) @end itemize @cindex system documentation In addition, ANS Forth systems are required to document certain implementation choices. This chapter tries to meet these requirements. In many cases it gives a way to ask the system for the information instead of providing the information directly, in particular, if the information depends on the processor, the operating system or the installation options chosen, or if they are likely to change during the maintenance of Gforth. @comment The framework for the rest has been taken from pfe. @menu * The Core Words:: * The optional Block word set:: * The optional Double Number word set:: * The optional Exception word set:: * The optional Facility word set:: * The optional File-Access word set:: * The optional Floating-Point word set:: * The optional Locals word set:: * The optional Memory-Allocation word set:: * The optional Programming-Tools word set:: * The optional Search-Order word set:: @end menu @c ===================================================================== @node The Core Words, The optional Block word set, ANS conformance, ANS conformance @comment node-name, next, previous, up @section The Core Words @c ===================================================================== @cindex core words, system documentation @cindex system documentation, core words @menu * core-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * core-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions * core-other:: Other System Documentation @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node core-idef, core-ambcond, The Core Words, The Core Words @subsection Implementation Defined Options @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex core words, implementation-defined options @cindex implementation-defined options, core words @table @i @item (Cell) aligned addresses: @cindex cell-aligned addresses @cindex aligned addresses processor-dependent. Gforth's alignment words perform natural alignment (e.g., an address aligned for a datum of size 8 is divisible by 8). Unaligned accesses usually result in a @code{-23 THROW}. @item @code{EMIT} and non-graphic characters: @cindex @code{EMIT} and non-graphic characters @cindex non-graphic characters and @code{EMIT} The character is output using the C library function (actually, macro) @code{putc}. @item character editing of @code{ACCEPT} and @code{EXPECT}: @cindex character editing of @code{ACCEPT} and @code{EXPECT} @cindex editing in @code{ACCEPT} and @code{EXPECT} @cindex @code{ACCEPT}, editing @cindex @code{EXPECT}, editing This is modeled on the GNU readline library (@pxref{Readline Interaction, , Command Line Editing, readline, The GNU Readline Library}) with Emacs-like key bindings. @kbd{Tab} deviates a little by producing a full word completion every time you type it (instead of producing the common prefix of all completions). @item character set: @cindex character set The character set of your computer and display device. Gforth is 8-bit-clean (but some other component in your system may make trouble). @item Character-aligned address requirements: @cindex character-aligned address requirements installation-dependent. Currently a character is represented by a C @code{unsigned char}; in the future we might switch to @code{wchar_t} (Comments on that requested). @item character-set extensions and matching of names: @cindex character-set extensions and matching of names @cindex case sensitivity for name lookup @cindex name lookup, case sensitivity @cindex locale and case sensitivity Any character except the ASCII NUL charcter can be used in a name. Matching is case-insensitive (except in @code{TABLE}s). The matching is performed using the C function @code{strncasecmp}, whose function is probably influenced by the locale. E.g., the @code{C} locale does not know about accents and umlauts, so they are matched case-sensitively in that locale. For portability reasons it is best to write programs such that they work in the @code{C} locale. Then one can use libraries written by a Polish programmer (who might use words containing ISO Latin-2 encoded characters) and by a French programmer (ISO Latin-1) in the same program (of course, @code{WORDS} will produce funny results for some of the words (which ones, depends on the font you are using)). Also, the locale you prefer may not be available in other operating systems. Hopefully, Unicode will solve these problems one day. @item conditions under which control characters match a space delimiter: @cindex space delimiters @cindex control characters as delimiters If @code{WORD} is called with the space character as a delimiter, all white-space characters (as identified by the C macro @code{isspace()}) are delimiters. @code{PARSE}, on the other hand, treats space like other delimiters. @code{PARSE-WORD} treats space like @code{WORD}, but behaves like @code{PARSE} otherwise. @code{(NAME)}, which is used by the outer interpreter (aka text interpreter) by default, treats all white-space characters as delimiters. @item format of the control flow stack: @cindex control flow stack, format The data stack is used as control flow stack. The size of a control flow stack item in cells is given by the constant @code{cs-item-size}. At the time of this writing, an item consists of a (pointer to a) locals list (third), an address in the code (second), and a tag for identifying the item (TOS). The following tags are used: @code{defstart}, @code{live-orig}, @code{dead-orig}, @code{dest}, @code{do-dest}, @code{scopestart}. @item conversion of digits > 35 @cindex digits > 35 The characters @code{[\]^_'} are the digits with the decimal value 36@minus{}41. There is no way to input many of the larger digits. @item display after input terminates in @code{ACCEPT} and @code{EXPECT}: @cindex @code{EXPECT}, display after end of input @cindex @code{ACCEPT}, display after end of input The cursor is moved to the end of the entered string. If the input is terminated using the @kbd{Return} key, a space is typed. @item exception abort sequence of @code{ABORT"}: @cindex exception abort sequence of @code{ABORT"} @cindex @code{ABORT"}, exception abort sequence The error string is stored into the variable @code{"error} and a @code{-2 throw} is performed. @item input line terminator: @cindex input line terminator @cindex line terminator on input @cindex newline charcter on input For interactive input, @kbd{C-m} (CR) and @kbd{C-j} (LF) terminate lines. One of these characters is typically produced when you type the @kbd{Enter} or @kbd{Return} key. @item maximum size of a counted string: @cindex maximum size of a counted string @cindex counted string, maximum size @code{s" /counted-string" environment? drop .}. Currently 255 characters on all ports, but this may change. @item maximum size of a parsed string: @cindex maximum size of a parsed string @cindex parsed string, maximum size Given by the constant @code{/line}. Currently 255 characters. @item maximum size of a definition name, in characters: @cindex maximum size of a definition name, in characters @cindex name, maximum length 31 @item maximum string length for @code{ENVIRONMENT?}, in characters: @cindex maximum string length for @code{ENVIRONMENT?}, in characters @cindex @code{ENVIRONMENT?} string length, maximum 31 @item method of selecting the user input device: @cindex user input device, method of selecting The user input device is the standard input. There is currently no way to change it from within Gforth. However, the input can typically be redirected in the command line that starts Gforth. @item method of selecting the user output device: @cindex user output device, method of selecting @code{EMIT} and @code{TYPE} output to the file-id stored in the value @code{outfile-id} (@code{stdout} by default). Gforth uses unbuffered output when the user output device is a terminal, otherwise the output is buffered. @item methods of dictionary compilation: What are we expected to document here? @item number of bits in one address unit: @cindex number of bits in one address unit @cindex address unit, size in bits @code{s" address-units-bits" environment? drop .}. 8 in all current ports. @item number representation and arithmetic: @cindex number representation and arithmetic Processor-dependent. Binary two's complement on all current ports. @item ranges for integer types: @cindex ranges for integer types @cindex integer types, ranges Installation-dependent. Make environmental queries for @code{MAX-N}, @code{MAX-U}, @code{MAX-D} and @code{MAX-UD}. The lower bounds for unsigned (and positive) types is 0. The lower bound for signed types on two's complement and one's complement machines machines can be computed by adding 1 to the upper bound. @item read-only data space regions: @cindex read-only data space regions @cindex data-space, read-only regions The whole Forth data space is writable. @item size of buffer at @code{WORD}: @cindex size of buffer at @code{WORD} @cindex @code{WORD} buffer size @code{PAD HERE - .}. 104 characters on 32-bit machines. The buffer is shared with the pictured numeric output string. If overwriting @code{PAD} is acceptable, it is as large as the remaining dictionary space, although only as much can be sensibly used as fits in a counted string. @item size of one cell in address units: @cindex cell size @code{1 cells .}. @item size of one character in address units: @cindex char size @code{1 chars .}. 1 on all current ports. @item size of the keyboard terminal buffer: @cindex size of the keyboard terminal buffer @cindex terminal buffer, size Varies. You can determine the size at a specific time using @code{lp@@ tib - .}. It is shared with the locals stack and TIBs of files that include the current file. You can change the amount of space for TIBs and locals stack at Gforth startup with the command line option @code{-l}. @item size of the pictured numeric output buffer: @cindex size of the pictured numeric output buffer @cindex pictured numeric output buffer, size @code{PAD HERE - .}. 104 characters on 32-bit machines. The buffer is shared with @code{WORD}. @item size of the scratch area returned by @code{PAD}: @cindex size of the scratch area returned by @code{PAD} @cindex @code{PAD} size The remainder of dictionary space. @code{unused pad here - - .}. @item system case-sensitivity characteristics: @cindex case-sensitivity characteristics Dictionary searches are case insensitive (except in @code{TABLE}s). However, as explained above under @i{character-set extensions}, the matching for non-ASCII characters is determined by the locale you are using. In the default @code{C} locale all non-ASCII characters are matched case-sensitively. @item system prompt: @cindex system prompt @cindex prompt @code{ ok} in interpret state, @code{ compiled} in compile state. @item division rounding: @cindex division rounding installation dependent. @code{s" floored" environment? drop .}. We leave the choice to @code{gcc} (what to use for @code{/}) and to you (whether to use @code{fm/mod}, @code{sm/rem} or simply @code{/}). @item values of @code{STATE} when true: @cindex @code{STATE} values -1. @item values returned after arithmetic overflow: On two's complement machines, arithmetic is performed modulo 2**bits-per-cell for single arithmetic and 4**bits-per-cell for double arithmetic (with appropriate mapping for signed types). Division by zero typically results in a @code{-55 throw} (Floating-point unidentified fault), although a @code{-10 throw} (divide by zero) would be more appropriate. @item whether the current definition can be found after @t{DOES>}: @cindex @t{DOES>}, visibility of current definition No. @end table @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node core-ambcond, core-other, core-idef, The Core Words @subsection Ambiguous conditions @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex core words, ambiguous conditions @cindex ambiguous conditions, core words @table @i @item a name is neither a word nor a number: @cindex name not found @cindex Undefined word @code{-13 throw} (Undefined word). Actually, @code{-13 bounce}, which preserves the data and FP stack, so you don't lose more work than necessary. @item a definition name exceeds the maximum length allowed: @cindex Word name too long @code{-19 throw} (Word name too long) @item addressing a region not inside the various data spaces of the forth system: @cindex Invalid memory address The stacks, code space and name space are accessible. Machine code space is typically readable. Accessing other addresses gives results dependent on the operating system. On decent systems: @code{-9 throw} (Invalid memory address). @item argument type incompatible with parameter: @cindex Argument type mismatch This is usually not caught. Some words perform checks, e.g., the control flow words, and issue a @code{ABORT"} or @code{-12 THROW} (Argument type mismatch). @item attempting to obtain the execution token of a word with undefined execution semantics: @cindex Interpreting a compile-only word, for @code{'} etc. @cindex execution token of words with undefined execution semantics @code{-14 throw} (Interpreting a compile-only word). In some cases, you get an execution token for @code{compile-only-error} (which performs a @code{-14 throw} when executed). @item dividing by zero: @cindex dividing by zero @cindex floating point unidentified fault, integer division @cindex divide by zero typically results in a @code{-55 throw} (floating point unidentified fault), although a @code{-10 throw} (divide by zero) would be more appropriate. @item insufficient data stack or return stack space: @cindex insufficient data stack or return stack space @cindex stack overflow @cindex Address alignment exception, stack overflow @cindex Invalid memory address, stack overflow Depending on the operating system, the installation, and the invocation of Gforth, this is either checked by the memory management hardware, or it is not checked. If it is checked, you typically get a @code{-9 throw} (Invalid memory address) as soon as the overflow happens. If it is not check, overflows typically result in mysterious illegal memory accesses, producing @code{-9 throw} (Invalid memory address) or @code{-23 throw} (Address alignment exception); they might also destroy the internal data structure of @code{ALLOCATE} and friends, resulting in various errors in these words. @item insufficient space for loop control parameters: @cindex insufficient space for loop control parameters like other return stack overflows. @item insufficient space in the dictionary: @cindex insufficient space in the dictionary @cindex dictionary overflow If you try to allot (either directly with @code{allot}, or indirectly with @code{,}, @code{create} etc.) more memory than available in the dictionary, you get a @code{-8 throw} (Dictionary overflow). If you try to access memory beyond the end of the dictionary, the results are similar to stack overflows. @item interpreting a word with undefined interpretation semantics: @cindex interpreting a word with undefined interpretation semantics @cindex Interpreting a compile-only word For some words, we have defined interpretation semantics. For the others: @code{-14 throw} (Interpreting a compile-only word). @item modifying the contents of the input buffer or a string literal: @cindex modifying the contents of the input buffer or a string literal These are located in writable memory and can be modified. @item overflow of the pictured numeric output string: @cindex overflow of the pictured numeric output string @cindex pictured numeric output string, overflow Not checked. Runs into the dictionary and destroys it (at least, partially). @item parsed string overflow: @cindex parsed string overflow @code{PARSE} cannot overflow. @code{WORD} does not check for overflow. @item producing a result out of range: @cindex result out of range On two's complement machines, arithmetic is performed modulo 2**bits-per-cell for single arithmetic and 4**bits-per-cell for double arithmetic (with appropriate mapping for signed types). Division by zero typically results in a @code{-55 throw} (floatingpoint unidentified fault), although a @code{-10 throw} (divide by zero) would be more appropriate. @code{convert} and @code{>number} currently overflow silently. @item reading from an empty data or return stack: @cindex stack empty @cindex stack underflow The data stack is checked by the outer (aka text) interpreter after every word executed. If it has underflowed, a @code{-4 throw} (Stack underflow) is performed. Apart from that, stacks may be checked or not, depending on operating system, installation, and invocation. The consequences of stack underflows are similar to the consequences of stack overflows. Note that even if the system uses checking (through the MMU), your program may have to underflow by a significant number of stack items to trigger the reaction (the reason for this is that the MMU, and therefore the checking, works with a page-size granularity). @item unexpected end of the input buffer, resulting in an attempt to use a zero-length string as a name: @cindex unexpected end of the input buffer @cindex zero-length string as a name @cindex Attempt to use zero-length string as a name @code{Create} and its descendants perform a @code{-16 throw} (Attempt to use zero-length string as a name). Words like @code{'} probably will not find what they search. Note that it is possible to create zero-length names with @code{nextname} (should it not?). @item @code{>IN} greater than input buffer: @cindex @code{>IN} greater than input buffer The next invocation of a parsing word returns a string with length 0. @item @code{RECURSE} appears after @code{DOES>}: @cindex @code{RECURSE} appears after @code{DOES>} Compiles a recursive call to the defining word, not to the defined word. @item argument input source different than current input source for @code{RESTORE-INPUT}: @cindex argument input source different than current input source for @code{RESTORE-INPUT} @cindex Argument type mismatch, @code{RESTORE-INPUT} @cindex @code{RESTORE-INPUT}, Argument type mismatch @code{-12 THROW}. Note that, once an input file is closed (e.g., because the end of the file was reached), its source-id may be reused. Therefore, restoring an input source specification referencing a closed file may lead to unpredictable results instead of a @code{-12 THROW}. In the future, Gforth may be able to restore input source specifications from other than the current input source. @item data space containing definitions gets de-allocated: @cindex data space containing definitions gets de-allocated Deallocation with @code{allot} is not checked. This typically results in memory access faults or execution of illegal instructions. @item data space read/write with incorrect alignment: @cindex data space read/write with incorrect alignment @cindex alignment faults @cindex Address alignment exception Processor-dependent. Typically results in a @code{-23 throw} (Address alignment exception). Under Linux-Intel on a 486 or later processor with alignment turned on, incorrect alignment results in a @code{-9 throw} (Invalid memory address). There are reportedly some processors with alignment restrictions that do not report violations. @item data space pointer not properly aligned, @code{,}, @code{C,}: @cindex data space pointer not properly aligned, @code{,}, @code{C,} Like other alignment errors. @item less than u+2 stack items (@code{PICK} and @code{ROLL}): Like other stack underflows. @item loop control parameters not available: @cindex loop control parameters not available Not checked. The counted loop words simply assume that the top of return stack items are loop control parameters and behave accordingly. @item most recent definition does not have a name (@code{IMMEDIATE}): @cindex most recent definition does not have a name (@code{IMMEDIATE}) @cindex last word was headerless @code{abort" last word was headerless"}. @item name not defined by @code{VALUE} used by @code{TO}: @cindex name not defined by @code{VALUE} used by @code{TO} @cindex @code{TO} on non-@code{VALUE}s @cindex Invalid name argument, @code{TO} @code{-32 throw} (Invalid name argument) (unless name is a local or was defined by @code{CONSTANT}; in the latter case it just changes the constant). @item name not found (@code{'}, @code{POSTPONE}, @code{[']}, @code{[COMPILE]}): @cindex name not found (@code{'}, @code{POSTPONE}, @code{[']}, @code{[COMPILE]}) @cindex Undefined word, @code{'}, @code{POSTPONE}, @code{[']}, @code{[COMPILE]} @code{-13 throw} (Undefined word) @item parameters are not of the same type (@code{DO}, @code{?DO}, @code{WITHIN}): @cindex parameters are not of the same type (@code{DO}, @code{?DO}, @code{WITHIN}) Gforth behaves as if they were of the same type. I.e., you can predict the behaviour by interpreting all parameters as, e.g., signed. @item @code{POSTPONE} or @code{[COMPILE]} applied to @code{TO}: @cindex @code{POSTPONE} or @code{[COMPILE]} applied to @code{TO} Assume @code{: X POSTPONE TO ; IMMEDIATE}. @code{X} performs the compilation semantics of @code{TO}. @item String longer than a counted string returned by @code{WORD}: @cindex String longer than a counted string returned by @code{WORD} @cindex @code{WORD}, string overflow Not checked. The string will be ok, but the count will, of course, contain only the least significant bits of the length. @item u greater than or equal to the number of bits in a cell (@code{LSHIFT}, @code{RSHIFT}): @cindex @code{LSHIFT}, large shift counts @cindex @code{RSHIFT}, large shift counts Processor-dependent. Typical behaviours are returning 0 and using only the low bits of the shift count. @item word not defined via @code{CREATE}: @cindex @code{>BODY} of non-@code{CREATE}d words @code{>BODY} produces the PFA of the word no matter how it was defined. @cindex @code{DOES>} of non-@code{CREATE}d words @code{DOES>} changes the execution semantics of the last defined word no matter how it was defined. E.g., @code{CONSTANT DOES>} is equivalent to @code{CREATE , DOES>}. @item words improperly used outside @code{<#} and @code{#>}: Not checked. As usual, you can expect memory faults. @end table @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node core-other, , core-ambcond, The Core Words @subsection Other system documentation @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex other system documentation, core words @cindex core words, other system documentation @table @i @item nonstandard words using @code{PAD}: @cindex @code{PAD} use by nonstandard words None. @item operator's terminal facilities available: @cindex operator's terminal facilities available After processing the command line, Gforth goes into interactive mode, and you can give commands to Gforth interactively. The actual facilities available depend on how you invoke Gforth. @item program data space available: @cindex program data space available @cindex data space available @code{UNUSED .} gives the remaining dictionary space. The total dictionary space can be specified with the @code{-m} switch (@pxref{Invoking Gforth}) when Gforth starts up. @item return stack space available: @cindex return stack space available You can compute the total return stack space in cells with @code{s" RETURN-STACK-CELLS" environment? drop .}. You can specify it at startup time with the @code{-r} switch (@pxref{Invoking Gforth}). @item stack space available: @cindex stack space available You can compute the total data stack space in cells with @code{s" STACK-CELLS" environment? drop .}. You can specify it at startup time with the @code{-d} switch (@pxref{Invoking Gforth}). @item system dictionary space required, in address units: @cindex system dictionary space required, in address units Type @code{here forthstart - .} after startup. At the time of this writing, this gives 80080 (bytes) on a 32-bit system. @end table @c ===================================================================== @node The optional Block word set, The optional Double Number word set, The Core Words, ANS conformance @section The optional Block word set @c ===================================================================== @cindex system documentation, block words @cindex block words, system documentation @menu * block-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * block-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions * block-other:: Other System Documentation @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node block-idef, block-ambcond, The optional Block word set, The optional Block word set @subsection Implementation Defined Options @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex implementation-defined options, block words @cindex block words, implementation-defined options @table @i @item the format for display by @code{LIST}: @cindex @code{LIST} display format First the screen number is displayed, then 16 lines of 64 characters, each line preceded by the line number. @item the length of a line affected by @code{\}: @cindex length of a line affected by @code{\} @cindex @code{\}, line length in blocks 64 characters. @end table @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node block-ambcond, block-other, block-idef, The optional Block word set @subsection Ambiguous conditions @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex block words, ambiguous conditions @cindex ambiguous conditions, block words @table @i @item correct block read was not possible: @cindex block read not possible Typically results in a @code{throw} of some OS-derived value (between -512 and -2048). If the blocks file was just not long enough, blanks are supplied for the missing portion. @item I/O exception in block transfer: @cindex I/O exception in block transfer @cindex block transfer, I/O exception Typically results in a @code{throw} of some OS-derived value (between -512 and -2048). @item invalid block number: @cindex invalid block number @cindex block number invalid @code{-35 throw} (Invalid block number) @item a program directly alters the contents of @code{BLK}: @cindex @code{BLK}, altering @code{BLK} The input stream is switched to that other block, at the same position. If the storing to @code{BLK} happens when interpreting non-block input, the system will get quite confused when the block ends. @item no current block buffer for @code{UPDATE}: @cindex @code{UPDATE}, no current block buffer @code{UPDATE} has no effect. @end table @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node block-other, , block-ambcond, The optional Block word set @subsection Other system documentation @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex other system documentation, block words @cindex block words, other system documentation @table @i @item any restrictions a multiprogramming system places on the use of buffer addresses: No restrictions (yet). @item the number of blocks available for source and data: depends on your disk space. @end table @c ===================================================================== @node The optional Double Number word set, The optional Exception word set, The optional Block word set, ANS conformance @section The optional Double Number word set @c ===================================================================== @cindex system documentation, double words @cindex double words, system documentation @menu * double-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node double-ambcond, , The optional Double Number word set, The optional Double Number word set @subsection Ambiguous conditions @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex double words, ambiguous conditions @cindex ambiguous conditions, double words @table @i @item @var{d} outside of range of @var{n} in @code{D>S}: @cindex @code{D>S}, @var{d} out of range of @var{n} The least significant cell of @var{d} is produced. @end table @c ===================================================================== @node The optional Exception word set, The optional Facility word set, The optional Double Number word set, ANS conformance @section The optional Exception word set @c ===================================================================== @cindex system documentation, exception words @cindex exception words, system documentation @menu * exception-idef:: Implementation Defined Options @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node exception-idef, , The optional Exception word set, The optional Exception word set @subsection Implementation Defined Options @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex implementation-defined options, exception words @cindex exception words, implementation-defined options @table @i @item @code{THROW}-codes used in the system: @cindex @code{THROW}-codes used in the system The codes -256@minus{}-511 are used for reporting signals. The mapping from OS signal numbers to throw codes is -256@minus{}@var{signal}. The codes -512@minus{}-2047 are used for OS errors (for file and memory allocation operations). The mapping from OS error numbers to throw codes is -512@minus{}@code{errno}. One side effect of this mapping is that undefined OS errors produce a message with a strange number; e.g., @code{-1000 THROW} results in @code{Unknown error 488} on my system. @end table @c ===================================================================== @node The optional Facility word set, The optional File-Access word set, The optional Exception word set, ANS conformance @section The optional Facility word set @c ===================================================================== @cindex system documentation, facility words @cindex facility words, system documentation @menu * facility-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * facility-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node facility-idef, facility-ambcond, The optional Facility word set, The optional Facility word set @subsection Implementation Defined Options @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex implementation-defined options, facility words @cindex facility words, implementation-defined options @table @i @item encoding of keyboard events (@code{EKEY}): @cindex keyboard events, encoding in @code{EKEY} @cindex @code{EKEY}, encoding of keyboard events Not yet implemented. @item duration of a system clock tick: @cindex duration of a system clock tick @cindex clock tick duration System dependent. With respect to @code{MS}, the time is specified in microseconds. How well the OS and the hardware implement this, is another question. @item repeatability to be expected from the execution of @code{MS}: @cindex repeatability to be expected from the execution of @code{MS} @cindex @code{MS}, repeatability to be expected System dependent. On Unix, a lot depends on load. If the system is lightly loaded, and the delay is short enough that Gforth does not get swapped out, the performance should be acceptable. Under MS-DOS and other single-tasking systems, it should be good. @end table @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node facility-ambcond, , facility-idef, The optional Facility word set @subsection Ambiguous conditions @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex facility words, ambiguous conditions @cindex ambiguous conditions, facility words @table @i @item @code{AT-XY} can't be performed on user output device: @cindex @code{AT-XY} can't be performed on user output device Largely terminal dependent. No range checks are done on the arguments. No errors are reported. You may see some garbage appearing, you may see simply nothing happen. @end table @c ===================================================================== @node The optional File-Access word set, The optional Floating-Point word set, The optional Facility word set, ANS conformance @section The optional File-Access word set @c ===================================================================== @cindex system documentation, file words @cindex file words, system documentation @menu * file-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * file-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node file-idef, file-ambcond, The optional File-Access word set, The optional File-Access word set @subsection Implementation Defined Options @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex implementation-defined options, file words @cindex file words, implementation-defined options @table @i @item file access methods used: @cindex file access methods used @code{R/O}, @code{R/W} and @code{BIN} work as you would expect. @code{W/O} translates into the C file opening mode @code{w} (or @code{wb}): The file is cleared, if it exists, and created, if it does not (with both @code{open-file} and @code{create-file}). Under Unix @code{create-file} creates a file with 666 permissions modified by your umask. @item file exceptions: @cindex file exceptions The file words do not raise exceptions (except, perhaps, memory access faults when you pass illegal addresses or file-ids). @item file line terminator: @cindex file line terminator System-dependent. Gforth uses C's newline character as line terminator. What the actual character code(s) of this are is system-dependent. @item file name format: @cindex file name format System dependent. Gforth just uses the file name format of your OS. @item information returned by @code{FILE-STATUS}: @cindex @code{FILE-STATUS}, returned information @code{FILE-STATUS} returns the most powerful file access mode allowed for the file: Either @code{R/O}, @code{W/O} or @code{R/W}. If the file cannot be accessed, @code{R/O BIN} is returned. @code{BIN} is applicable along with the returned mode. @item input file state after an exception when including source: @cindex exception when including source All files that are left via the exception are closed. @item @var{ior} values and meaning: @cindex @var{ior} values and meaning The @var{ior}s returned by the file and memory allocation words are intended as throw codes. They typically are in the range -512@minus{}-2047 of OS errors. The mapping from OS error numbers to @var{ior}s is -512@minus{}@var{errno}. @item maximum depth of file input nesting: @cindex maximum depth of file input nesting @cindex file input nesting, maximum depth limited by the amount of return stack, locals/TIB stack, and the number of open files available. This should not give you troubles. @item maximum size of input line: @cindex maximum size of input line @cindex input line size, maximum @code{/line}. Currently 255. @item methods of mapping block ranges to files: @cindex mapping block ranges to files @cindex files containing blocks @cindex blocks in files By default, blocks are accessed in the file @file{blocks.fb} in the current working directory. The file can be switched with @code{USE}. @item number of string buffers provided by @code{S"}: @cindex @code{S"}, number of string buffers 1 @item size of string buffer used by @code{S"}: @cindex @code{S"}, size of string buffer @code{/line}. currently 255. @end table @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node file-ambcond, , file-idef, The optional File-Access word set @subsection Ambiguous conditions @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex file words, ambiguous conditions @cindex ambiguous conditions, file words @table @i @item attempting to position a file outside its boundaries: @cindex @code{REPOSITION-FILE}, outside the file's boundaries @code{REPOSITION-FILE} is performed as usual: Afterwards, @code{FILE-POSITION} returns the value given to @code{REPOSITION-FILE}. @item attempting to read from file positions not yet written: @cindex reading from file positions not yet written End-of-file, i.e., zero characters are read and no error is reported. @item @var{file-id} is invalid (@code{INCLUDE-FILE}): @cindex @code{INCLUDE-FILE}, @var{file-id} is invalid An appropriate exception may be thrown, but a memory fault or other problem is more probable. @item I/O exception reading or closing @var{file-id} (@code{INCLUDE-FILE}, @code{INCLUDED}): @cindex @code{INCLUDE-FILE}, I/O exception reading or closing @var{file-id} @cindex @code{INCLUDED}, I/O exception reading or closing @var{file-id} The @var{ior} produced by the operation, that discovered the problem, is thrown. @item named file cannot be opened (@code{INCLUDED}): @cindex @code{INCLUDED}, named file cannot be opened The @var{ior} produced by @code{open-file} is thrown. @item requesting an unmapped block number: @cindex unmapped block numbers There are no unmapped legal block numbers. On some operating systems, writing a block with a large number may overflow the file system and have an error message as consequence. @item using @code{source-id} when @code{blk} is non-zero: @cindex @code{SOURCE-ID}, behaviour when @code{BLK} is non-zero @code{source-id} performs its function. Typically it will give the id of the source which loaded the block. (Better ideas?) @end table @c ===================================================================== @node The optional Floating-Point word set, The optional Locals word set, The optional File-Access word set, ANS conformance @section The optional Floating-Point word set @c ===================================================================== @cindex system documentation, floating-point words @cindex floating-point words, system documentation @menu * floating-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * floating-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node floating-idef, floating-ambcond, The optional Floating-Point word set, The optional Floating-Point word set @subsection Implementation Defined Options @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex implementation-defined options, floating-point words @cindex floating-point words, implementation-defined options @table @i @item format and range of floating point numbers: @cindex format and range of floating point numbers @cindex floating point numbers, format and range System-dependent; the @code{double} type of C. @item results of @code{REPRESENT} when @var{float} is out of range: @cindex @code{REPRESENT}, results when @var{float} is out of range System dependent; @code{REPRESENT} is implemented using the C library function @code{ecvt()} and inherits its behaviour in this respect. @item rounding or truncation of floating-point numbers: @cindex rounding of floating-point numbers @cindex truncation of floating-point numbers @cindex floating-point numbers, rounding or truncation System dependent; the rounding behaviour is inherited from the hosting C compiler. IEEE-FP-based (i.e., most) systems by default round to nearest, and break ties by rounding to even (i.e., such that the last bit of the mantissa is 0). @item size of floating-point stack: @cindex floating-point stack size @code{s" FLOATING-STACK" environment? drop .} gives the total size of the floating-point stack (in floats). You can specify this on startup with the command-line option @code{-f} (@pxref{Invoking Gforth}). @item width of floating-point stack: @cindex floating-point stack width @code{1 floats}. @end table @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node floating-ambcond, , floating-idef, The optional Floating-Point word set @subsection Ambiguous conditions @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex floating-point words, ambiguous conditions @cindex ambiguous conditions, floating-point words @table @i @item @code{df@@} or @code{df!} used with an address that is not double-float aligned: @cindex @code{df@@} or @code{df!} used with an address that is not double-float aligned System-dependent. Typically results in a @code{-23 THROW} like other alignment violations. @item @code{f@@} or @code{f!} used with an address that is not float aligned: @cindex @code{f@@} used with an address that is not float aligned @cindex @code{f!} used with an address that is not float aligned System-dependent. Typically results in a @code{-23 THROW} like other alignment violations. @item floating-point result out of range: @cindex floating-point result out of range System-dependent. Can result in a @code{-55 THROW} (Floating-point unidentified fault), or can produce a special value representing, e.g., Infinity. @item @code{sf@@} or @code{sf!} used with an address that is not single-float aligned: @cindex @code{sf@@} or @code{sf!} used with an address that is not single-float aligned System-dependent. Typically results in an alignment fault like other alignment violations. @item @code{BASE} is not decimal (@code{REPRESENT}, @code{F.}, @code{FE.}, @code{FS.}): @cindex @code{BASE} is not decimal (@code{REPRESENT}, @code{F.}, @code{FE.}, @code{FS.}) The floating-point number is converted into decimal nonetheless. @item Both arguments are equal to zero (@code{FATAN2}): @cindex @code{FATAN2}, both arguments are equal to zero System-dependent. @code{FATAN2} is implemented using the C library function @code{atan2()}. @item Using @code{FTAN} on an argument @var{r1} where cos(@var{r1}) is zero: @cindex @code{FTAN} on an argument @var{r1} where cos(@var{r1}) is zero System-dependent. Anyway, typically the cos of @var{r1} will not be zero because of small errors and the tan will be a very large (or very small) but finite number. @item @var{d} cannot be presented precisely as a float in @code{D>F}: @cindex @code{D>F}, @var{d} cannot be presented precisely as a float The result is rounded to the nearest float. @item dividing by zero: @cindex dividing by zero, floating-point @cindex floating-point dividing by zero @cindex floating-point unidentified fault, FP divide-by-zero @code{-55 throw} (Floating-point unidentified fault) @item exponent too big for conversion (@code{DF!}, @code{DF@@}, @code{SF!}, @code{SF@@}): @cindex exponent too big for conversion (@code{DF!}, @code{DF@@}, @code{SF!}, @code{SF@@}) System dependent. On IEEE-FP based systems the number is converted into an infinity. @item @var{float}<1 (@code{FACOSH}): @cindex @code{FACOSH}, @var{float}<1 @cindex floating-point unidentified fault, @code{FACOSH} @code{-55 throw} (Floating-point unidentified fault) @item @var{float}=<-1 (@code{FLNP1}): @cindex @code{FLNP1}, @var{float}=<-1 @cindex floating-point unidentified fault, @code{FLNP1} @code{-55 throw} (Floating-point unidentified fault). On IEEE-FP systems negative infinity is typically produced for @var{float}=-1. @item @var{float}=<0 (@code{FLN}, @code{FLOG}): @cindex @code{FLN}, @var{float}=<0 @cindex @code{FLOG}, @var{float}=<0 @cindex floating-point unidentified fault, @code{FLN} or @code{FLOG} @code{-55 throw} (Floating-point unidentified fault). On IEEE-FP systems negative infinity is typically produced for @var{float}=0. @item @var{float}<0 (@code{FASINH}, @code{FSQRT}): @cindex @code{FASINH}, @var{float}<0 @cindex @code{FSQRT}, @var{float}<0 @cindex floating-point unidentified fault, @code{FASINH} or @code{FSQRT} @code{-55 throw} (Floating-point unidentified fault). @code{fasinh} produces values for these inputs on my Linux box (Bug in the C library?) @item |@var{float}|>1 (@code{FACOS}, @code{FASIN}, @code{FATANH}): @cindex @code{FACOS}, |@var{float}|>1 @cindex @code{FASIN}, |@var{float}|>1 @cindex @code{FATANH}, |@var{float}|>1 @cindex floating-point unidentified fault, @code{FACOS}, @code{FASIN} or @code{FATANH} @code{-55 throw} (Floating-point unidentified fault). @item integer part of float cannot be represented by @var{d} in @code{F>D}: @cindex @code{F>D}, integer part of float cannot be represented by @var{d} @cindex floating-point unidentified fault, @code{F>D} @code{-55 throw} (Floating-point unidentified fault). @item string larger than pictured numeric output area (@code{f.}, @code{fe.}, @code{fs.}): @cindex string larger than pictured numeric output area (@code{f.}, @code{fe.}, @code{fs.}) This does not happen. @end table @c ===================================================================== @node The optional Locals word set, The optional Memory-Allocation word set, The optional Floating-Point word set, ANS conformance @section The optional Locals word set @c ===================================================================== @cindex system documentation, locals words @cindex locals words, system documentation @menu * locals-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * locals-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node locals-idef, locals-ambcond, The optional Locals word set, The optional Locals word set @subsection Implementation Defined Options @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex implementation-defined options, locals words @cindex locals words, implementation-defined options @table @i @item maximum number of locals in a definition: @cindex maximum number of locals in a definition @cindex locals, maximum number in a definition @code{s" #locals" environment? drop .}. Currently 15. This is a lower bound, e.g., on a 32-bit machine there can be 41 locals of up to 8 characters. The number of locals in a definition is bounded by the size of locals-buffer, which contains the names of the locals. @end table @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node locals-ambcond, , locals-idef, The optional Locals word set @subsection Ambiguous conditions @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex locals words, ambiguous conditions @cindex ambiguous conditions, locals words @table @i @item executing a named local in interpretation state: @cindex local in interpretation state @cindex Interpreting a compile-only word, for a local Locals have no interpretation semantics. If you try to perform the interpretation semantics, you will get a @code{-14 throw} somewhere (Interpreting a compile-only word). If you perform the compilation semantics, the locals access will be compiled (irrespective of state). @item @var{name} not defined by @code{VALUE} or @code{(LOCAL)} (@code{TO}): @cindex name not defined by @code{VALUE} or @code{(LOCAL)} used by @code{TO} @cindex @code{TO} on non-@code{VALUE}s and non-locals @cindex Invalid name argument, @code{TO} @code{-32 throw} (Invalid name argument) @end table @c ===================================================================== @node The optional Memory-Allocation word set, The optional Programming-Tools word set, The optional Locals word set, ANS conformance @section The optional Memory-Allocation word set @c ===================================================================== @cindex system documentation, memory-allocation words @cindex memory-allocation words, system documentation @menu * memory-idef:: Implementation Defined Options @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node memory-idef, , The optional Memory-Allocation word set, The optional Memory-Allocation word set @subsection Implementation Defined Options @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex implementation-defined options, memory-allocation words @cindex memory-allocation words, implementation-defined options @table @i @item values and meaning of @var{ior}: @cindex @var{ior} values and meaning The @var{ior}s returned by the file and memory allocation words are intended as throw codes. They typically are in the range -512@minus{}-2047 of OS errors. The mapping from OS error numbers to @var{ior}s is -512@minus{}@var{errno}. @end table @c ===================================================================== @node The optional Programming-Tools word set, The optional Search-Order word set, The optional Memory-Allocation word set, ANS conformance @section The optional Programming-Tools word set @c ===================================================================== @cindex system documentation, programming-tools words @cindex programming-tools words, system documentation @menu * programming-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * programming-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node programming-idef, programming-ambcond, The optional Programming-Tools word set, The optional Programming-Tools word set @subsection Implementation Defined Options @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex implementation-defined options, programming-tools words @cindex programming-tools words, implementation-defined options @table @i @item ending sequence for input following @code{;CODE} and @code{CODE}: @cindex @code{;CODE} ending sequence @cindex @code{CODE} ending sequence @code{END-CODE} @item manner of processing input following @code{;CODE} and @code{CODE}: @cindex @code{;CODE}, processing input @cindex @code{CODE}, processing input The @code{ASSEMBLER} vocabulary is pushed on the search order stack, and the input is processed by the text interpreter, (starting) in interpret state. @item search order capability for @code{EDITOR} and @code{ASSEMBLER}: @cindex @code{ASSEMBLER}, search order capability The ANS Forth search order word set. @item source and format of display by @code{SEE}: @cindex @code{SEE}, source and format of output The source for @code{see} is the intermediate code used by the inner interpreter. The current @code{see} tries to output Forth source code as well as possible. @end table @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node programming-ambcond, , programming-idef, The optional Programming-Tools word set @subsection Ambiguous conditions @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex programming-tools words, ambiguous conditions @cindex ambiguous conditions, programming-tools words @table @i @item deleting the compilation wordlist (@code{FORGET}): @cindex @code{FORGET}, deleting the compilation wordlist Not implemented (yet). @item fewer than @var{u}+1 items on the control flow stack (@code{CS-PICK}, @code{CS-ROLL}): @cindex @code{CS-PICK}, fewer than @var{u}+1 items on the control flow stack @cindex @code{CS-ROLL}, fewer than @var{u}+1 items on the control flow stack @cindex control-flow stack underflow This typically results in an @code{abort"} with a descriptive error message (may change into a @code{-22 throw} (Control structure mismatch) in the future). You may also get a memory access error. If you are unlucky, this ambiguous condition is not caught. @item @var{name} can't be found (@code{FORGET}): @cindex @code{FORGET}, @var{name} can't be found Not implemented (yet). @item @var{name} not defined via @code{CREATE}: @cindex @code{;CODE}, @var{name} not defined via @code{CREATE} @code{;CODE} behaves like @code{DOES>} in this respect, i.e., it changes the execution semantics of the last defined word no matter how it was defined. @item @code{POSTPONE} applied to @code{[IF]}: @cindex @code{POSTPONE} applied to @code{[IF]} @cindex @code{[IF]} and @code{POSTPONE} After defining @code{: X POSTPONE [IF] ; IMMEDIATE}. @code{X} is equivalent to @code{[IF]}. @item reaching the end of the input source before matching @code{[ELSE]} or @code{[THEN]}: @cindex @code{[IF]}, end of the input source before matching @code{[ELSE]} or @code{[THEN]} Continue in the same state of conditional compilation in the next outer input source. Currently there is no warning to the user about this. @item removing a needed definition (@code{FORGET}): @cindex @code{FORGET}, removing a needed definition Not implemented (yet). @end table @c ===================================================================== @node The optional Search-Order word set, , The optional Programming-Tools word set, ANS conformance @section The optional Search-Order word set @c ===================================================================== @cindex system documentation, search-order words @cindex search-order words, system documentation @menu * search-idef:: Implementation Defined Options * search-ambcond:: Ambiguous Conditions @end menu @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node search-idef, search-ambcond, The optional Search-Order word set, The optional Search-Order word set @subsection Implementation Defined Options @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex implementation-defined options, search-order words @cindex search-order words, implementation-defined options @table @i @item maximum number of word lists in search order: @cindex maximum number of word lists in search order @cindex search order, maximum depth @code{s" wordlists" environment? drop .}. Currently 16. @item minimum search order: @cindex minimum search order @cindex search order, minimum @code{root root}. @end table @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @node search-ambcond, , search-idef, The optional Search-Order word set @subsection Ambiguous conditions @c --------------------------------------------------------------------- @cindex search-order words, ambiguous conditions @cindex ambiguous conditions, search-order words @table @i @item changing the compilation wordlist (during compilation): @cindex changing the compilation wordlist (during compilation) @cindex compilation wordlist, change before definition ends The word is entered into the wordlist that was the compilation wordlist at the start of the definition. Any changes to the name field (e.g., @code{immediate}) or the code field (e.g., when executing @code{DOES>}) are applied to the latest defined word (as reported by @code{last} or @code{lastxt}), if possible, irrespective of the compilation wordlist. @item search order empty (@code{previous}): @cindex @code{previous}, search order empty @cindex Vocstack empty, @code{previous} @code{abort" Vocstack empty"}. @item too many word lists in search order (@code{also}): @cindex @code{also}, too many word lists in search order @cindex Vocstack full, @code{also} @code{abort" Vocstack full"}. @end table @c *************************************************************** @node Model, Integrating Gforth, ANS conformance, Top @chapter Model This chapter has yet to be written. It will contain information, on which internal structures you can rely. @c *************************************************************** @node Integrating Gforth, Emacs and Gforth, Model, Top @chapter Integrating Gforth into C programs This is not yet implemented. Several people like to use Forth as scripting language for applications that are otherwise written in C, C++, or some other language. The Forth system ATLAST provides facilities for embedding it into applications; unfortunately it has several disadvantages: most importantly, it is not based on ANS Forth, and it is apparently dead (i.e., not developed further and not supported). The facilities provided by Gforth in this area are inspired by ATLASTs facilities, so making the switch should not be hard. We also tried to design the interface such that it can easily be implemented by other Forth systems, so that we may one day arrive at a standardized interface. Such a standard interface would allow you to replace the Forth system without having to rewrite C code. You embed the Gforth interpreter by linking with the library @code{libgforth.a} (give the compiler the option @code{-lgforth}). All global symbols in this library that belong to the interface, have the prefix @code{forth_}. (Global symbols that are used internally have the prefix @code{gforth_}). You can include the declarations of Forth types and the functions and variables of the interface with @code{#include }. Types. Variables. Data and FP Stack pointer. Area sizes. functions. forth_init(imagefile) forth_evaluate(string) exceptions? forth_goto(address) (or forth_execute(xt)?) forth_continue() (a corountining mechanism) Adding primitives. No checking. Signals? Accessing the Stacks @node Emacs and Gforth, Image Files, Integrating Gforth, Top @chapter Emacs and Gforth @cindex Emacs and Gforth @cindex @file{gforth.el} @cindex @file{forth.el} @cindex Rydqvist, Goran @cindex comment editing commands @cindex @code{\}, editing with Emacs @cindex debug tracer editing commands @cindex @code{~~}, removal with Emacs @cindex Forth mode in Emacs Gforth comes with @file{gforth.el}, an improved version of @file{forth.el} by Goran Rydqvist (included in the TILE package). The improvements are a better (but still not perfect) handling of indentation. I have also added comment paragraph filling (@kbd{M-q}), commenting (@kbd{C-x \}) and uncommenting (@kbd{C-u C-x \}) regions and removing debugging tracers (@kbd{C-x ~}, @pxref{Debugging}). I left the stuff I do not use alone, even though some of it only makes sense for TILE. To get a description of these features, enter Forth mode and type @kbd{C-h m}. @cindex source location of error or debugging output in Emacs @cindex error output, finding the source location in Emacs @cindex debugging output, finding the source location in Emacs In addition, Gforth supports Emacs quite well: The source code locations given in error messages, debugging output (from @code{~~}) and failed assertion messages are in the right format for Emacs' compilation mode (@pxref{Compilation, , Running Compilations under Emacs, emacs, Emacs Manual}) so the source location corresponding to an error or other message is only a few keystrokes away (@kbd{C-x `} for the next error, @kbd{C-c C-c} for the error under the cursor). @cindex @file{TAGS} file @cindex @file{etags.fs} @cindex viewing the source of a word in Emacs Also, if you @code{include} @file{etags.fs}, a new @file{TAGS} file (@pxref{Tags, , Tags Tables, emacs, Emacs Manual}) will be produced that contains the definitions of all words defined afterwards. You can then find the source for a word using @kbd{M-.}. Note that emacs can use several tags files at the same time (e.g., one for the Gforth sources and one for your program, @pxref{Select Tags Table,,Selecting a Tags Table,emacs, Emacs Manual}). The TAGS file for the preloaded words is @file{$(datadir)/gforth/$(VERSION)/TAGS} (e.g., @file{/usr/local/share/gforth/0.2.0/TAGS}). @cindex @file{.emacs} To get all these benefits, add the following lines to your @file{.emacs} file: @example (autoload 'forth-mode "gforth.el") (setq auto-mode-alist (cons '("\\.fs\\'" . forth-mode) auto-mode-alist)) @end example @node Image Files, Engine, Emacs and Gforth, Top @chapter Image Files @cindex image files @cindex @code{.fi} files @cindex precompiled Forth code @cindex dictionary in persistent form @cindex persistent form of dictionary An image file is a file containing an image of the Forth dictionary, i.e., compiled Forth code and data residing in the dictionary. By convention, we use the extension @code{.fi} for image files. @menu * Image File Background:: Why have image files? * Non-Relocatable Image Files:: don't always work. * Data-Relocatable Image Files:: are better. * Fully Relocatable Image Files:: better yet. * Stack and Dictionary Sizes:: Setting the default sizes for an image. * Running Image Files:: @code{gforth -i @var{file}} or @var{file}. * Modifying the Startup Sequence:: and turnkey applications. @end menu @node Image File Background, Non-Relocatable Image Files, Image Files, Image Files @section Image File Background @cindex image file background Our Forth system consists not only of primitives, but also of definitions written in Forth. Since the Forth compiler itself belongs to those definitions, it is not possible to start the system with the primitives and the Forth source alone. Therefore we provide the Forth code as an image file in nearly executable form. At the start of the system a C routine loads the image file into memory, optionally relocates the addresses, then sets up the memory (stacks etc.) according to information in the image file, and starts executing Forth code. The image file variants represent different compromises between the goals of making it easy to generate image files and making them portable. @cindex relocation at run-time Win32Forth 3.4 and Mitch Bradleys @code{cforth} use relocation at run-time. This avoids many of the complications discussed below (image files are data relocatable without further ado), but costs performance (one addition per memory access). @cindex relocation at load-time By contrast, our loader performs relocation at image load time. The loader also has to replace tokens standing for primitive calls with the appropriate code-field addresses (or code addresses in the case of direct threading). There are three kinds of image files, with different degrees of relocatability: non-relocatable, data-relocatable, and fully relocatable image files. @cindex image file loader @cindex relocating loader @cindex loader for image files These image file variants have several restrictions in common; they are caused by the design of the image file loader: @itemize @bullet @item There is only one segment; in particular, this means, that an image file cannot represent @code{ALLOCATE}d memory chunks (and pointers to them). And the contents of the stacks are not represented, either. @item The only kinds of relocation supported are: adding the same offset to all cells that represent data addresses; and replacing special tokens with code addresses or with pieces of machine code. If any complex computations involving addresses are performed, the results cannot be represented in the image file. Several applications that use such computations come to mind: @itemize @minus @item Hashing addresses (or data structures which contain addresses) for table lookup. If you use Gforth's @code{table}s or @code{wordlist}s for this purpose, you will have no problem, because the hash tables are recomputed automatically when the system is started. If you use your own hash tables, you will have to do something similar. @item There's a cute implementation of doubly-linked lists that uses @code{XOR}ed addresses. You could represent such lists as singly-linked in the image file, and restore the doubly-linked representation on startup.@footnote{In my opinion, though, you should think thrice before using a doubly-linked list (whatever implementation).} @item The code addresses of run-time routines like @code{docol:} cannot be represented in the image file (because their tokens would be replaced by machine code in direct threaded implementations). As a workaround, compute these addresses at run-time with @code{>code-address} from the executions tokens of appropriate words (see the definitions of @code{docol:} and friends in @file{kernel.fs}). @item On many architectures addresses are represented in machine code in some shifted or mangled form. You cannot put @code{CODE} words that contain absolute addresses in this form in a relocatable image file. Workarounds are representing the address in some relative form (e.g., relative to the CFA, which is present in some register), or loading the address from a place where it is stored in a non-mangled form. @end itemize @end itemize @node Non-Relocatable Image Files, Data-Relocatable Image Files, Image File Background, Image Files @section Non-Relocatable Image Files @cindex non-relocatable image files @cindex image files, non-relocatable These files are simple memory dumps of the dictionary. They are specific to the executable (i.e., @file{gforth} file) they were created with. What's worse, they are specific to the place on which the dictionary resided when the image was created. Now, there is no guarantee that the dictionary will reside at the same place the next time you start Gforth, so there's no guarantee that a non-relocatable image will work the next time (Gforth will complain instead of crashing, though). You can create a non-relocatable image file with doc-savesystem @node Data-Relocatable Image Files, Fully Relocatable Image Files, Non-Relocatable Image Files, Image Files @section Data-Relocatable Image Files @cindex data-relocatable image files @cindex image files, data-relocatable These files contain relocatable data addresses, but fixed code addresses (instead of tokens). They are specific to the executable (i.e., @file{gforth} file) they were created with. For direct threading on some architectures (e.g., the i386), data-relocatable images do not work. You get a data-relocatable image, if you use @file{gforthmi} with a Gforth binary that is not doubly indirect threaded (@pxref{Fully Relocatable Image Files}). @node Fully Relocatable Image Files, Stack and Dictionary Sizes, Data-Relocatable Image Files, Image Files @section Fully Relocatable Image Files @cindex fully relocatable image files @cindex image files, fully relocatable @cindex @file{kern*.fi}, relocatability @cindex @file{gforth.fi}, relocatability These image files have relocatable data addresses, and tokens for code addresses. They can be used with different binaries (e.g., with and without debugging) on the same machine, and even across machines with the same data formats (byte order, cell size, floating point format). However, they are usually specific to the version of Gforth they were created with. The files @file{gforth.fi} and @file{kernl*.fi} are fully relocatable. There are two ways to create a fully relocatable image file: @menu * gforthmi:: The normal way * cross.fs:: The hard way @end menu @node gforthmi, cross.fs, Fully Relocatable Image Files, Fully Relocatable Image Files @subsection @file{gforthmi} @cindex @file{comp-i.fs} @cindex @file{gforthmi} You will usually use @file{gforthmi}. If you want to create an image @var{file} that contains everything you would load by invoking Gforth with @code{gforth @var{options}}, you simply say @example gforthmi @var{file} @var{options} @end example E.g., if you want to create an image @file{asm.fi} that has the file @file{asm.fs} loaded in addition to the usual stuff, you could do it like this: @example gforthmi asm.fi asm.fs @end example @file{gforthmi} works like this: It produces two non-relocatable images for different addresses and then compares them. Its output reflects this: first you see the output (if any) of the two Gforth invocations that produce the nonrelocatable image files, then you see the output of the comparing program: It displays the offset used for data addresses and the offset used for code addresses; moreover, for each cell that cannot be represented correctly in the image files, it displays a line like the following one: @example 78DC BFFFFA50 BFFFFA40 @end example This means that at offset $78dc from @code{forthstart}, one input image contains $bffffa50, and the other contains $bffffa40. Since these cells cannot be represented correctly in the output image, you should examine these places in the dictionary and verify that these cells are dead (i.e., not read before they are written). @cindex @code{savesystem} during @file{gforthmi} @cindex @code{bye} during @file{gforthmi} @cindex doubly indirect threaded code @cindex environment variable @code{GFORTHD} @cindex @code{GFORTHD} environment variable @cindex @code{gforth-ditc} There are a few wrinkles: After processing the passed @var{options}, the words @code{savesystem} and @code{bye} must be visible. A special doubly indirect threaded version of the @file{gforth} executable is used for creating the nonrelocatable images; you can pass the exact filename of this executable through the environment variable @code{GFORTHD} (default: @file{gforth-ditc}); if you pass a version that is not doubly indirect threaded, you will not get a fully relocatable image, but a data-relocatable image (because there is no code address offset). @node cross.fs, , gforthmi, Fully Relocatable Image Files @subsection @file{cross.fs} @cindex @file{cross.fs} @cindex cross-compiler @cindex metacompiler You can also use @code{cross}, a batch compiler that accepts a Forth-like programming language. This @code{cross} language has to be documented yet. @cindex target compiler @code{cross} also allows you to create image files for machines with different data sizes and data formats than the one used for generating the image file. You can also use it to create an application image that does not contain a Forth compiler. These features are bought with restrictions and inconveniences in programming. E.g., addresses have to be stored in memory with special words (@code{A!}, @code{A,}, etc.) in order to make the code relocatable. @node Stack and Dictionary Sizes, Running Image Files, Fully Relocatable Image Files, Image Files @section Stack and Dictionary Sizes @cindex image file, stack and dictionary sizes @cindex dictionary size default @cindex stack size default If you invoke Gforth with a command line flag for the size (@pxref{Invoking Gforth}), the size you specify is stored in the dictionary. If you save the dictionary with @code{savesystem} or create an image with @file{gforthmi}, this size will become the default for the resulting image file. E.g., the following will create a fully relocatable version of gforth.fi with a 1MB dictionary: @example gforthmi gforth.fi -m 1M @end example In other words, if you want to set the default size for the dictionary and the stacks of an image, just invoke @file{gforthmi} with the appropriate options when creating the image. @cindex stack size, cache-friendly Note: For cache-friendly behaviour (i.e., good performance), you should make the sizes of the stacks modulo, say, 2K, somewhat different. E.g., the default stack sizes are: data: 16k (mod 2k=0); fp: 15.5k (mod 2k=1.5k); return: 15k(mod 2k=1k); locals: 14.5k (mod 2k=0.5k). @node Running Image Files, Modifying the Startup Sequence, Stack and Dictionary Sizes, Image Files @section Running Image Files @cindex running image files @cindex invoking image files @cindex image file invocation @cindex -i, invoke image file @cindex --image file, invoke image file You can invoke Gforth with an image file @var{image} instead of the default @file{gforth.fi} with the @code{-i} flag (@pxref{Invoking Gforth}): @example gforth -i @var{image} @end example @cindex executable image file @cindex image files, executable If your operating system supports starting scripts with a line of the form @code{#! ...}, you just have to type the image file name to start Gforth with this image file (note that the file extension @code{.fi} is just a convention). I.e., to run Gforth with the image file @var{image}, you can just type @var{image} instead of @code{gforth -i @var{image}}. doc-#! @node Modifying the Startup Sequence, , Running Image Files, Image Files @section Modifying the Startup Sequence @cindex startup sequence for image file @cindex image file initialization sequence @cindex initialization sequence of image file You can add your own initialization to the startup sequence through the deferred word doc-'cold @code{'cold} is invoked just before the image-specific command line processing (by default, loading files and evaluating (@code{-e}) strings) starts. A sequence for adding your initialization usually looks like this: @example :noname Defers 'cold \ do other initialization stuff (e.g., rehashing wordlists) ... \ your stuff ; IS 'cold @end example @cindex turnkey image files @cindex image files, turnkey applications You can make a turnkey image by letting @code{'cold} execute a word (your turnkey application) that never returns; instead, it exits Gforth via @code{bye} or @code{throw}. @cindex command-line arguments, access @cindex arguments on the command line, access You can access the (image-specific) command-line arguments through the variables @code{argc} and @code{argv}. @code{arg} provides conventient access to @code{argv}. doc-argc doc-argv doc-arg If @code{'cold} exits normally, Gforth processes the command-line arguments as files to be loaded and strings to be evaluated. Therefore, @code{'cold} should remove the arguments it has used in this case. @c ****************************************************************** @node Engine, Binding to System Library, Image Files, Top @chapter Engine @cindex engine @cindex virtual machine Reading this section is not necessary for programming with Gforth. It may be helpful for finding your way in the Gforth sources. The ideas in this section have also been published in the papers @cite{ANS fig/GNU/??? Forth} (in German) by Bernd Paysan, presented at the Forth-Tagung '93 and @cite{A Portable Forth Engine} by M. Anton Ertl, presented at EuroForth '93; the latter is available at @*@url{http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/papers/ertl93.ps.Z}. @menu * Portability:: * Threading:: * Primitives:: * Performance:: @end menu @node Portability, Threading, Engine, Engine @section Portability @cindex engine portability One of the main goals of the effort is availability across a wide range of personal machines. fig-Forth, and, to a lesser extent, F83, achieved this goal by manually coding the engine in assembly language for several then-popular processors. This approach is very labor-intensive and the results are short-lived due to progress in computer architecture. @cindex C, using C for the engine Others have avoided this problem by coding in C, e.g., Mitch Bradley (cforth), Mikael Patel (TILE) and Dirk Zoller (pfe). This approach is particularly popular for UNIX-based Forths due to the large variety of architectures of UNIX machines. Unfortunately an implementation in C does not mix well with the goals of efficiency and with using traditional techniques: Indirect or direct threading cannot be expressed in C, and switch threading, the fastest technique available in C, is significantly slower. Another problem with C is that it is very cumbersome to express double integer arithmetic. @cindex GNU C for the engine @cindex long long Fortunately, there is a portable language that does not have these limitations: GNU C, the version of C processed by the GNU C compiler (@pxref{C Extensions, , Extensions to the C Language Family, gcc.info, GNU C Manual}). Its labels as values feature (@pxref{Labels as Values, , Labels as Values, gcc.info, GNU C Manual}) makes direct and indirect threading possible, its @code{long long} type (@pxref{Long Long, , Double-Word Integers, gcc.info, GNU C Manual}) corresponds to Forth's double numbers@footnote{Unfortunately, long longs are not implemented properly on all machines (e.g., on alpha-osf1, long longs are only 64 bits, the same size as longs (and pointers), but they should be twice as long according to @pxref{Long Long, , Double-Word Integers, gcc.info, GNU C Manual}). So, we had to implement doubles in C after all. Still, on most machines we can use long longs and achieve better performance than with the emulation package.}. GNU C is available for free on all important (and many unimportant) UNIX machines, VMS, 80386s running MS-DOS, the Amiga, and the Atari ST, so a Forth written in GNU C can run on all these machines. Writing in a portable language has the reputation of producing code that is slower than assembly. For our Forth engine we repeatedly looked at the code produced by the compiler and eliminated most compiler-induced inefficiencies by appropriate changes in the source code. @cindex explicit register declarations @cindex --enable-force-reg, configuration flag @cindex -DFORCE_REG However, register allocation cannot be portably influenced by the programmer, leading to some inefficiencies on register-starved machines. We use explicit register declarations (@pxref{Explicit Reg Vars, , Variables in Specified Registers, gcc.info, GNU C Manual}) to improve the speed on some machines. They are turned on by using the configuration flag @code{--enable-force-reg} (@code{gcc} switch @code{-DFORCE_REG}). Unfortunately, this feature not only depends on the machine, but also on the compiler version: On some machines some compiler versions produce incorrect code when certain explicit register declarations are used. So by default @code{-DFORCE_REG} is not used. @node Threading, Primitives, Portability, Engine @section Threading @cindex inner interpreter implementation @cindex threaded code implementation @cindex labels as values GNU C's labels as values extension (available since @code{gcc-2.0}, @pxref{Labels as Values, , Labels as Values, gcc.info, GNU C Manual}) makes it possible to take the address of @var{label} by writing @code{&&@var{label}}. This address can then be used in a statement like @code{goto *@var{address}}. I.e., @code{goto *&&x} is the same as @code{goto x}. @cindex NEXT, indirect threaded @cindex indirect threaded inner interpreter @cindex inner interpreter, indirect threaded With this feature an indirect threaded NEXT looks like: @example cfa = *ip++; ca = *cfa; goto *ca; @end example @cindex instruction pointer For those unfamiliar with the names: @code{ip} is the Forth instruction pointer; the @code{cfa} (code-field address) corresponds to ANS Forths execution token and points to the code field of the next word to be executed; The @code{ca} (code address) fetched from there points to some executable code, e.g., a primitive or the colon definition handler @code{docol}. @cindex NEXT, direct threaded @cindex direct threaded inner interpreter @cindex inner interpreter, direct threaded Direct threading is even simpler: @example ca = *ip++; goto *ca; @end example Of course we have packaged the whole thing neatly in macros called @code{NEXT} and @code{NEXT1} (the part of NEXT after fetching the cfa). @menu * Scheduling:: * Direct or Indirect Threaded?:: * DOES>:: @end menu @node Scheduling, Direct or Indirect Threaded?, Threading, Threading @subsection Scheduling @cindex inner interpreter optimization There is a little complication: Pipelined and superscalar processors, i.e., RISC and some modern CISC machines can process independent instructions while waiting for the results of an instruction. The compiler usually reorders (schedules) the instructions in a way that achieves good usage of these delay slots. However, on our first tries the compiler did not do well on scheduling primitives. E.g., for @code{+} implemented as @example n=sp[0]+sp[1]; sp++; sp[0]=n; NEXT; @end example the NEXT comes strictly after the other code, i.e., there is nearly no scheduling. After a little thought the problem becomes clear: The compiler cannot know that sp and ip point to different addresses (and the version of @code{gcc} we used would not know it even if it was possible), so it could not move the load of the cfa above the store to the TOS. Indeed the pointers could be the same, if code on or very near the top of stack were executed. In the interest of speed we chose to forbid this probably unused ``feature'' and helped the compiler in scheduling: NEXT is divided into the loading part (@code{NEXT_P1}) and the goto part (@code{NEXT_P2}). @code{+} now looks like: @example n=sp[0]+sp[1]; sp++; NEXT_P1; sp[0]=n; NEXT_P2; @end example This can be scheduled optimally by the compiler. This division can be turned off with the switch @code{-DCISC_NEXT}. This switch is on by default on machines that do not profit from scheduling (e.g., the 80386), in order to preserve registers. @node Direct or Indirect Threaded?, DOES>, Scheduling, Threading @subsection Direct or Indirect Threaded? @cindex threading, direct or indirect? @cindex -DDIRECT_THREADED Both! After packaging the nasty details in macro definitions we realized that we could switch between direct and indirect threading by simply setting a compilation flag (@code{-DDIRECT_THREADED}) and defining a few machine-specific macros for the direct-threading case. On the Forth level we also offer access words that hide the differences between the threading methods (@pxref{Threading Words}). Indirect threading is implemented completely machine-independently. Direct threading needs routines for creating jumps to the executable code (e.g. to docol or dodoes). These routines are inherently machine-dependent, but they do not amount to many source lines. I.e., even porting direct threading to a new machine is a small effort. @cindex --enable-indirect-threaded, configuration flag @cindex --enable-direct-threaded, configuration flag The default threading method is machine-dependent. You can enforce a specific threading method when building Gforth with the configuration flag @code{--enable-direct-threaded} or @code{--enable-indirect-threaded}. Note that direct threading is not supported on all machines. @node DOES>, , Direct or Indirect Threaded?, Threading @subsection DOES> @cindex @code{DOES>} implementation @cindex dodoes routine @cindex DOES-code One of the most complex parts of a Forth engine is @code{dodoes}, i.e., the chunk of code executed by every word defined by a @code{CREATE}...@code{DOES>} pair. The main problem here is: How to find the Forth code to be executed, i.e. the code after the @code{DOES>} (the DOES-code)? There are two solutions: In fig-Forth the code field points directly to the dodoes and the DOES-code address is stored in the cell after the code address (i.e. at @code{@var{cfa} cell+}). It may seem that this solution is illegal in the Forth-79 and all later standards, because in fig-Forth this address lies in the body (which is illegal in these standards). However, by making the code field larger for all words this solution becomes legal again. We use this approach for the indirect threaded version and for direct threading on some machines. Leaving a cell unused in most words is a bit wasteful, but on the machines we are targeting this is hardly a problem. The other reason for having a code field size of two cells is to avoid having different image files for direct and indirect threaded systems (direct threaded systems require two-cell code fields on many machines). @cindex DOES-handler The other approach is that the code field points or jumps to the cell after @code{DOES}. In this variant there is a jump to @code{dodoes} at this address (the DOES-handler). @code{dodoes} can then get the DOES-code address by computing the code address, i.e., the address of the jump to dodoes, and add the length of that jump field. A variant of this is to have a call to @code{dodoes} after the @code{DOES>}; then the return address (which can be found in the return register on RISCs) is the DOES-code address. Since the two cells available in the code field are used up by the jump to the code address in direct threading on many architectures, we use this approach for direct threading on these architectures. We did not want to add another cell to the code field. @node Primitives, Performance, Threading, Engine @section Primitives @cindex primitives, implementation @cindex virtual machine instructions, implementation @menu * Automatic Generation:: * TOS Optimization:: * Produced code:: @end menu @node Automatic Generation, TOS Optimization, Primitives, Primitives @subsection Automatic Generation @cindex primitives, automatic generation @cindex @file{prims2x.fs} Since the primitives are implemented in a portable language, there is no longer any need to minimize the number of primitives. On the contrary, having many primitives has an advantage: speed. In order to reduce the number of errors in primitives and to make programming them easier, we provide a tool, the primitive generator (@file{prims2x.fs}), that automatically generates most (and sometimes all) of the C code for a primitive from the stack effect notation. The source for a primitive has the following form: @cindex primitive source format @format @var{Forth-name} @var{stack-effect} @var{category} [@var{pronounc.}] [@code{""}@var{glossary entry}@code{""}] @var{C code} [@code{:} @var{Forth code}] @end format The items in brackets are optional. The category and glossary fields are there for generating the documentation, the Forth code is there for manual implementations on machines without GNU C. E.g., the source for the primitive @code{+} is: @example + n1 n2 -- n core plus n = n1+n2; @end example This looks like a specification, but in fact @code{n = n1+n2} is C code. Our primitive generation tool extracts a lot of information from the stack effect notations@footnote{We use a one-stack notation, even though we have separate data and floating-point stacks; The separate notation can be generated easily from the unified notation.}: The number of items popped from and pushed on the stack, their type, and by what name they are referred to in the C code. It then generates a C code prelude and postlude for each primitive. The final C code for @code{+} looks like this: @example I_plus: /* + ( n1 n2 -- n ) */ /* label, stack effect */ /* */ /* documentation */ @{ DEF_CA /* definition of variable ca (indirect threading) */ Cell n1; /* definitions of variables */ Cell n2; Cell n; n1 = (Cell) sp[1]; /* input */ n2 = (Cell) TOS; sp += 1; /* stack adjustment */ NAME("+") /* debugging output (with -DDEBUG) */ @{ n = n1+n2; /* C code taken from the source */ @} NEXT_P1; /* NEXT part 1 */ TOS = (Cell)n; /* output */ NEXT_P2; /* NEXT part 2 */ @} @end example This looks long and inefficient, but the GNU C compiler optimizes quite well and produces optimal code for @code{+} on, e.g., the R3000 and the HP RISC machines: Defining the @code{n}s does not produce any code, and using them as intermediate storage also adds no cost. There are also other optimizations, that are not illustrated by this example: Assignments between simple variables are usually for free (copy propagation). If one of the stack items is not used by the primitive (e.g. in @code{drop}), the compiler eliminates the load from the stack (dead code elimination). On the other hand, there are some things that the compiler does not do, therefore they are performed by @file{prims2x.fs}: The compiler does not optimize code away that stores a stack item to the place where it just came from (e.g., @code{over}). While programming a primitive is usually easy, there are a few cases where the programmer has to take the actions of the generator into account, most notably @code{?dup}, but also words that do not (always) fall through to NEXT. @node TOS Optimization, Produced code, Automatic Generation, Primitives @subsection TOS Optimization @cindex TOS optimization for primitives @cindex primitives, keeping the TOS in a register An important optimization for stack machine emulators, e.g., Forth engines, is keeping one or more of the top stack items in registers. If a word has the stack effect @var{in1}...@var{inx} @code{--} @var{out1}...@var{outy}, keeping the top @var{n} items in registers @itemize @bullet @item is better than keeping @var{n-1} items, if @var{x>=n} and @var{y>=n}, due to fewer loads from and stores to the stack. @item is slower than keeping @var{n-1} items, if @var{x<>y} and @var{x